mz_storage/render/

persist_sink.rs

// Copyright Materialize, Inc. and contributors. All rights reserved.
//
// Use of this software is governed by the Business Source License
// included in the LICENSE file.
//
// As of the Change Date specified in that file, in accordance with
// the Business Source License, use of this software will be governed
// by the Apache License, Version 2.0.

//! Render an operator that persists a source collection.
//!
//! ## Implementation
//!
//! This module defines the `persist_sink` operator, that writes
//! a collection produced by source rendering into a persist shard.
//!
//! It attempts to use all workers to write data to persist, and uses
//! single-instance workers to coordinate work. The below diagram
//! is an overview how it it shaped. There is more information
//! in the doc comments of the top-level functions of this module.
//!
//!```text
//!
//!                                       ,------------.
//!                                       | source     |
//!                                       | collection |
//!                                       +---+--------+
//!                                       /   |
//!                                      /    |
//!                                     /     |
//!                                    /      |
//!                                   /       |
//!                                  /        |
//!                                 /         |
//!                                /          |
//!                               /     ,-+-----------------------.
//!                              /      | mint_batch_descriptions |
//!                             /       | one arbitrary worker    |
//!                            |        +-,--,--------+----+------+
//!                           ,----------´.-´         |     \
//!                       _.-´ |       .-´            |      \
//!                   _.-´     |    .-´               |       \
//!                .-´  .------+----|-------+---------|--------\-----.
//!               /    /            |       |         |         \     \
//!        ,--------------.   ,-----------------.     |     ,-----------------.
//!        | write_batches|   |  write_batches  |     |     |  write_batches  |
//!        | worker 0     |   | worker 1        |     |     | worker N        |
//!        +-----+--------+   +-+---------------+     |     +--+--------------+
//!               \              \                    |        /
//!                `-.            `,                  |       /
//!                   `-._          `-.               |      /
//!                       `-._         `-.            |     /
//!                           `---------. `-.         |    /
//!                                     +`---`---+-------------,
//!                                     | append_batches       |
//!                                     | one arbitrary worker |
//!                                     +------+---------------+
//!```
//!
//! `mint_batch_descriptions` also takes the ingestion's remap upper as a disconnected input, and
//! broadcasts a committed ceiling to the writers, which `append_batches` does not see. Both edges
//! are left out of the diagram to avoid clutter.
//!
//! ## Similarities with `mz_compute::sink::persist_sink`
//!
//! This module has many similarities with the compute version of
//! the same concept, and in fact, is entirely derived from it.
//!
//! Compute requires that its `persist_sink` is _self-correcting_;
//! that is, it corrects what the collection in persist
//! accumulates to if the collection has values changed at
//! previous timestamps. It does this by continually comparing
//! the input stream with the collection as read back from persist.
//!
//! Source collections, while definite, cannot be reliably by
//! re-produced once written down, which means compute's
//! `persist_sink`'s self-correction mechanism would need to be
//! skipped on operator startup, and would cause unnecessary read
//! load on persist.
//!
//! Additionally, persisting sources requires we use bounded
//! amounts of memory, even if a single timestamp represents
//! a huge amount of data. This is not (currently) possible
//! to guarantee while also performing self-correction.
//!
//! Because of this, we have ripped out the self-correction
//! mechanism, and aggressively simplified the sub-operators.
//! Some, particularly `append_batches` could be merged with
//! the compute version, but that requires some amount of
//! onerous refactoring that we have chosen to skip for now.
//!
// TODO(guswynn): merge at least the `append_batches` operator`

use std::cmp::Ordering;
use std::collections::{BTreeMap, VecDeque};
use std::fmt::Debug;
use std::ops::AddAssign;
use std::rc::Rc;
use std::sync::Arc;
use std::time::Duration;

use differential_dataflow::difference::Monoid;
use differential_dataflow::lattice::Lattice;
use differential_dataflow::{AsCollection, Hashable, VecCollection};
use futures::{StreamExt, future};
use itertools::Itertools;
use mz_ore::cast::CastFrom;
use mz_ore::collections::HashMap;
use mz_persist_client::Diagnostics;
use mz_persist_client::batch::{Batch, BatchBuilder, ProtoBatch};
use mz_persist_client::cache::PersistClientCache;
use mz_persist_client::error::UpperMismatch;
use mz_persist_types::codec_impls::UnitSchema;
use mz_persist_types::{Codec, Codec64};
use mz_repr::{Diff, GlobalId, Row};
use mz_storage_types::controller::CollectionMetadata;
use mz_storage_types::errors::DataflowError;
use mz_storage_types::sources::SourceData;
use mz_storage_types::{StorageDiff, dyncfgs};
use mz_timely_util::builder_async::{
    Event, OperatorBuilder as AsyncOperatorBuilder, PressOnDropButton,
};
use serde::{Deserialize, Serialize};
use timely::PartialOrder;
use timely::container::CapacityContainerBuilder;
use timely::dataflow::channels::pact::{Exchange, Pipeline};
use timely::dataflow::operators::vec::Broadcast;
use timely::dataflow::operators::{Capability, CapabilitySet, InspectCore};
use timely::dataflow::{Scope, Stream, StreamVec};
use timely::progress::{Antichain, Timestamp};
use tokio::sync::Semaphore;
use tracing::{info, trace};

use crate::metrics::source::SourcePersistSinkMetrics;
use crate::statistics::SourceStatistics;
use crate::storage_state::StorageState;

/// Metrics about batches.
#[derive(Clone, Debug, Default, Deserialize, Serialize)]
struct BatchMetrics {
    inserts: u64,
    retractions: u64,
    error_inserts: u64,
    error_retractions: u64,
}

impl AddAssign<&BatchMetrics> for BatchMetrics {
    fn add_assign(&mut self, rhs: &BatchMetrics) {
        let BatchMetrics {
            inserts: self_inserts,
            retractions: self_retractions,
            error_inserts: self_error_inserts,
            error_retractions: self_error_retractions,
        } = self;
        let BatchMetrics {
            inserts: rhs_inserts,
            retractions: rhs_retractions,
            error_inserts: rhs_error_inserts,
            error_retractions: rhs_error_retractions,
        } = rhs;
        *self_inserts += rhs_inserts;
        *self_retractions += rhs_retractions;
        *self_error_inserts += rhs_error_inserts;
        *self_error_retractions += rhs_error_retractions;
    }
}

/// Manages batches and metrics.
struct BatchBuilderAndMetadata<K, V, T, D>
where
    K: Codec,
    V: Codec,
    T: Timestamp + Lattice + Codec64,
{
    builder: BatchBuilder<K, V, T, D>,
    /// Largest update timestamp staged so far, `None` while empty.
    ///
    /// `append_batches` needs this to decide, after an `UpperMismatch`, whether a batch lies
    /// entirely below a raised append lower. A batch completely below the append lower is
    /// deleted. A batch whose data straddles an append lower has its bounds adjusted instead.
    data_max_ts: Option<T>,
    metrics: BatchMetrics,
}

impl<K, V, T, D> BatchBuilderAndMetadata<K, V, T, D>
where
    K: Codec + Debug,
    V: Codec + Debug,
    T: Timestamp + Lattice + Codec64,
    D: Monoid + Codec64,
{
    /// Creates a new batch. Updates at any timestamp at or beyond the builder's lower may be
    /// added, in any order.
    fn new(builder: BatchBuilder<K, V, T, D>) -> Self {
        BatchBuilderAndMetadata {
            builder,
            data_max_ts: None,
            metrics: Default::default(),
        }
    }

    /// Adds an update to the batch.
    async fn add(&mut self, k: &K, v: &V, t: &T, d: &D) {
        self.data_max_ts = Some(match self.data_max_ts.take() {
            Some(max) => max.join(t),
            None => t.clone(),
        });

        self.builder.add(k, v, t, d).await.expect("invalid usage");
    }

    /// Finishes the batch, registering it under `lower` and `upper`.
    ///
    /// Panics if no update was ever added, since an empty batch has no largest timestamp. Callers
    /// open a builder on the first update rather than up front, so reaching this is a bug.
    async fn finish(self, lower: Antichain<T>, upper: Antichain<T>) -> HollowBatchAndMetadata<T> {
        let data_max_ts = self.data_max_ts.expect("finishing an empty builder");
        // `BatchBuilder::finish` rejects an update at or beyond `upper`, so a builder that was
        // handed updates outside the description it is being finished under fails here rather
        // than producing a batch whose parts reach past their registered bounds.
        let batch = self
            .builder
            .finish(upper.clone())
            .await
            .expect("invalid usage");
        HollowBatchAndMetadata {
            lower,
            upper,
            data_max_ts,
            batch: batch.into_transmittable_batch(),
            metrics: self.metrics,
        }
    }
}

/// A batch or data + metrics moved from `write_batches` to `append_batches`.
#[derive(Clone, Debug, Deserialize, Serialize)]
#[serde(bound(
    serialize = "T: Timestamp + Codec64",
    deserialize = "T: Timestamp + Codec64"
))]
struct HollowBatchAndMetadata<T> {
    lower: Antichain<T>,
    upper: Antichain<T>,
    data_max_ts: T,
    batch: ProtoBatch,
    metrics: BatchMetrics,
}

/// Holds finished batches for `append_batches`.
#[derive(Debug, Default)]
struct BatchSet {
    finished: Vec<FinishedBatch>,
    batch_metrics: BatchMetrics,
}

#[derive(Debug)]
struct FinishedBatch {
    batch: Batch<SourceData, (), mz_repr::Timestamp, StorageDiff>,
    data_max_ts: mz_repr::Timestamp,
}

/// The batch builder the source sink writes with.
type SourceBatchBuilder = BatchBuilderAndMetadata<SourceData, (), mz_repr::Timestamp, StorageDiff>;

/// How far past the remap upper the minter commits its ceiling while a snapshot pins the
/// frontier, in milliseconds, the unit of `mz_repr::Timestamp`. `None` turns committing ahead off.
///
/// `timestamp_interval` is the floor to avoid having data outrun the ceiling. Remap emits a new
/// binding and downgrades its capability together. Rows emitted by reclock under the new binding
/// are racing the new ceiling to the batch writers. At one timestamp interval the previous ceiling
/// already covers the current timestamp's rows. Rows still outrun it when consecutive probes are
/// further apart than the lookahead, which costs a batch rather than correctness.
fn description_lookahead(lookahead: Duration, timestamp_interval: Duration) -> Option<u64> {
    // Saturates rather than panics, since the lookahead is operator-supplied. A lookahead that
    // large overflows the ceiling in `next_mint`, which then commits nothing.
    let to_millis = |d: Duration| u64::try_from(d.as_millis()).unwrap_or(u64::MAX);
    let lookahead = to_millis(lookahead);
    // The floor is applied past the zero test, which is the only value that turns committing
    // ahead off.
    (lookahead > 0).then(|| lookahead.max(to_millis(timestamp_interval)))
}

/// Adds one update to `builder`, keeping the batch metrics in step.
async fn stage_update(
    builder: &mut SourceBatchBuilder,
    row: Result<Row, DataflowError>,
    ts: mz_repr::Timestamp,
    diff: Diff,
) {
    let is_value = row.is_ok();

    builder
        .add(&SourceData(row), &(), &ts, &diff.into_inner())
        .await;

    // Note that we assume `diff` is either +1 or -1 here, being anything else is a logic bug we
    // can't handle at the metric layer. We also assume this addition doesn't overflow.
    match (is_value, diff.is_positive()) {
        (true, true) => builder.metrics.inserts += diff.unsigned_abs(),
        (true, false) => builder.metrics.retractions += diff.unsigned_abs(),
        (false, true) => builder.metrics.error_inserts += diff.unsigned_abs(),
        (false, false) => builder.metrics.error_retractions += diff.unsigned_abs(),
    }
}

/// Continuously writes the `desired_stream` into persist
/// This is done via a multi-stage operator graph:
///
/// 1. `mint_batch_descriptions` emits new batch descriptions whenever the
///    frontier of `desired_collection` advances. A batch description is
///    a pair of `(lower, upper)` that tells write operators
///    which updates to write and in the end tells the append operator
///    what frontiers to use when calling `append`/`compare_and_append`.
///    This is a single-worker operator.
/// 2. `write_batches` writes the `desired_collection` to persist as
///    batches and sends those batches along.
///    This does not yet append the batches to the persist shard, the update are
///    only uploaded/prepared to be appended to a shard. Also: we only write
///    updates for batch descriptions that we learned about from
///    `mint_batch_descriptions`.
/// 3. `append_batches` takes as input the minted batch descriptions and written
///    batches. Whenever the frontiers sufficiently advance, we take a batch
///    description and all the batches that belong to it and append it to the
///    persist shard.
///
/// This operator assumes that the `desired_collection` comes pre-sharded.
///
/// Note that `mint_batch_descriptions` inspects the frontier of
/// `desired_collection`, and passes the data through to `write_batches`.
/// This is done to avoid a clone of the underlying data so that both
/// operators can have the collection as input.
///
/// `snapshot_time` is the as_of, the time the collection's snapshot lands at, given only for an
/// export that snapshots in this incarnation. The frontier sits there for the length of the
/// snapshot, which is what gives the sink something to group. `remap_upper` carries the
/// ingestion's remap upper as its frontier, which paces the grouping. See
/// [`mint_batch_descriptions`].
pub(crate) fn render<'scope>(
    scope: Scope<'scope, mz_repr::Timestamp>,
    collection_id: GlobalId,
    target: CollectionMetadata,
    desired_collection: VecCollection<'scope, mz_repr::Timestamp, Result<Row, DataflowError>, Diff>,
    storage_state: &StorageState,
    metrics: SourcePersistSinkMetrics,
    busy_signal: Arc<Semaphore>,
    snapshot_time: Option<Antichain<mz_repr::Timestamp>>,
    timestamp_interval: Duration,
    remap_upper: StreamVec<'scope, mz_repr::Timestamp, ()>,
) -> (
    StreamVec<'scope, mz_repr::Timestamp, ()>,
    StreamVec<'scope, mz_repr::Timestamp, Rc<anyhow::Error>>,
    Vec<PressOnDropButton>,
) {
    let persist_clients = Arc::clone(&storage_state.persist_clients);

    let operator_name = format!("persist_sink({})", collection_id);

    let config_set = storage_state.storage_configuration.config_set();
    let lookahead = description_lookahead(
        dyncfgs::STORAGE_PERSIST_SINK_DESCRIPTION_LOOKAHEAD.get(config_set),
        timestamp_interval,
    );
    // Once per dataflow build, so a hydration's logs show whether this sink groups a snapshot's
    // updates into one batch or writes one batch per timestamp.
    info!(
        %collection_id,
        lookahead_ms = lookahead.unwrap_or(0),
        "persist_sink description lookahead"
    );

    let (batch_descriptions, commitments, passthrough_desired_stream, mint_token) =
        mint_batch_descriptions(
            scope,
            collection_id,
            &operator_name,
            &target,
            desired_collection,
            remap_upper,
            Arc::clone(&persist_clients),
            lookahead,
            snapshot_time,
        );

    let source_statistics = storage_state
        .aggregated_statistics
        .get_source(&collection_id)
        .expect("statistics initialized")
        .clone();

    let (written_batches, write_token) = write_batches(
        scope,
        collection_id.clone(),
        &operator_name,
        &target,
        batch_descriptions.clone(),
        commitments,
        passthrough_desired_stream.as_collection(),
        Arc::clone(&persist_clients),
        source_statistics,
        Arc::clone(&busy_signal),
    );

    let (upper_stream, append_errors, append_token) = append_batches(
        scope,
        collection_id.clone(),
        operator_name,
        &target,
        batch_descriptions,
        written_batches,
        persist_clients,
        storage_state,
        metrics,
        Arc::clone(&busy_signal),
    );

    (
        upper_stream,
        append_errors,
        vec![mint_token, write_token, append_token],
    )
}

/// Whenever the frontier advances, this mints a new batch description (lower
/// and upper) that writers should use for writing the next set of batches to
/// persist.
///
/// With a `lookahead`, and while the frontier sits at `snapshot_time`, it also commits to a
/// ceiling that far past the data and broadcasts it on the second output. A
/// ceiling is not a description: it gives the writers a bound to group updates under before the
/// frontier certifies anything, and it binds this operator, which mints nothing below an
/// outstanding ceiling. So the whole snapshot and the catch-up behind it become one description,
/// emitted when the frontier reaches the ceiling. See [`next_mint`].
///
/// Only one of the workers does this, meaning there will only be one
/// description in the stream, even in case of multiple timely workers. Use
/// `broadcast()` to, ahem, broadcast, the one description to all downstream
/// write operators/workers.
///
/// `remap_upper` carries the ingestion's remap upper as its frontier, which paces the
/// commitments. Reclocking stamps every update below that upper before the update exists, so a
/// ceiling ahead of it leads every row that can still arrive, however long this export's own data
/// has been quiet.
fn mint_batch_descriptions<'scope>(
    scope: Scope<'scope, mz_repr::Timestamp>,
    collection_id: GlobalId,
    operator_name: &str,
    target: &CollectionMetadata,
    desired_collection: VecCollection<'scope, mz_repr::Timestamp, Result<Row, DataflowError>, Diff>,
    remap_upper: StreamVec<'scope, mz_repr::Timestamp, ()>,
    persist_clients: Arc<PersistClientCache>,
    lookahead: Option<u64>,
    snapshot_time: Option<Antichain<mz_repr::Timestamp>>,
) -> (
    StreamVec<
        'scope,
        mz_repr::Timestamp,
        (Antichain<mz_repr::Timestamp>, Antichain<mz_repr::Timestamp>),
    >,
    StreamVec<'scope, mz_repr::Timestamp, Commitment>,
    StreamVec<'scope, mz_repr::Timestamp, (Result<Row, DataflowError>, mz_repr::Timestamp, Diff)>,
    PressOnDropButton,
) {
    let persist_location = target.persist_location.clone();
    let shard_id = target.data_shard;
    let target_relation_desc = target.relation_desc.clone();

    // Only one worker is responsible for determining batch descriptions. All
    // workers must write batches with the same description, to ensure that they
    // can be combined into one batch that gets appended to Consensus state.
    let hashed_id = collection_id.hashed();
    let active_worker = usize::cast_from(hashed_id) % scope.peers() == scope.index();

    // Only the "active" operator will mint batches. All other workers have an
    // empty frontier. It's necessary to insert all of these into
    // `compute_state.sink_write_frontier` below so we properly clear out
    // default frontiers of non-active workers.

    let mut mint_op = AsyncOperatorBuilder::new(
        format!("{} mint_batch_descriptions", operator_name),
        scope.clone(),
    );

    let (output, output_stream) = mint_op.new_output::<CapacityContainerBuilder<Vec<_>>>();
    let (ceiling_output, ceiling_output_stream) =
        mint_op.new_output::<CapacityContainerBuilder<Vec<_>>>();
    let (data_output, data_output_stream) =
        mint_op.new_output::<CapacityContainerBuilder<Vec<_>>>();

    // The description, ceiling and data-passthrough outputs are all driven by this input, so
    // they use a standard input connection.
    let mut desired_input = mint_op.new_input_for_many(
        desired_collection.inner,
        Pipeline,
        [&output, &ceiling_output, &data_output],
    );

    // The remap upper only influences the bounds of descriptions, it doesn't drive the outputs, so
    // this input is disconnected. The stream is already broadcast, so every worker holds its
    // frontier and the active one reads it in place.
    let mut remap_input = mint_op.new_disconnected_input(remap_upper, Pipeline);

    let shutdown_button = mint_op.build(move |capabilities| async move {
        // Non-active workers should just pass the data through.
        if !active_worker {
            // The description and ceiling outputs are entirely driven by the active worker, so we
            // drop their capabilities here. The data-passthrough output just uses the data
            // capabilities.
            drop(capabilities);
            while let Some(event) = desired_input.next().await {
                match event {
                    Event::Data([_output_cap, _ceiling_cap, data_output_cap], mut data) => {
                        data_output.give_container(&data_output_cap, &mut data);
                    }
                    Event::Progress(_) => {}
                }
            }
            return;
        }
        // The data-passthrough output uses the data capabilities, so we drop its capability here.
        let [desc_cap, ceiling_cap, _]: [_; 3] =
            capabilities.try_into().expect("one capability per output");
        let mut cap_set = CapabilitySet::from_elem(desc_cap);
        let mut ceiling_cap_set = CapabilitySet::from_elem(ceiling_cap);

        // Initialize this operators's `upper` to the `upper` of the persist shard we are writing
        // to. Data from the source not beyond this time will be dropped, as it has already
        // been persisted.
        // In the future, sources will avoid passing through data not beyond this upper
        let mut current_upper = {
            // TODO(aljoscha): We need to figure out what to do with error
            // results from these calls.
            let persist_client = persist_clients
                .open(persist_location)
                .await
                .expect("could not open persist client");

            let mut write = persist_client
                .open_writer::<SourceData, (), mz_repr::Timestamp, StorageDiff>(
                    shard_id,
                    Arc::new(target_relation_desc),
                    Arc::new(UnitSchema),
                    Diagnostics {
                        shard_name: collection_id.to_string(),
                        handle_purpose: format!(
                            "storage::persist_sink::mint_batch_descriptions {}",
                            collection_id
                        ),
                    },
                )
                .await
                .expect("could not open persist shard");

            // TODO: this sink currently cannot tolerate a stale upper... which is bad because the
            // upper can become stale as soon as it is read. (For example, if another concurrent
            // instance of the sink has updated it.) Fetching a recent upper helps to mitigate this,
            // but ideally we would just skip ahead if we discover that our upper is stale.
            let upper = write.fetch_recent_upper().await.clone();
            // explicitly expire the once-used write handle.
            write.expire().await;
            upper
        };

        // The current input frontier.
        let mut desired_frontier = Antichain::from_elem(mz_repr::Timestamp::minimum());

        // The ingestion's remap upper, which drives the ceiling.
        let mut remap_upper = Antichain::from_elem(mz_repr::Timestamp::minimum());

        // The outstanding ceiling, if any. While one is held nothing below it is minted, which is
        // what makes it binding.
        let mut committed: Option<mz_repr::Timestamp> = None;

        // The wait sits at the bottom of the loop, so a mint pass runs once before the first
        // event as well as after every event. A fresh export's snapshot lands at the minimum and
        // its frontier never moves during it, so no event announces the pin. Its first ceiling
        // has to go out ahead of the snapshot's rows rather than alongside them.
        loop {
            // `desired_frontier` starts at the minimum. A fresh export's as_of is the minimum too,
            // so it reads as snapshotting from the first activation. A later as_of waits for the
            // progress statement that moves the frontier there. A row can arrive ahead of that
            // statement, and committing on it would anchor the ceiling at the shard upper instead
            // of the snapshot's time.
            let snapshot_in_progress = snapshot_time
                .as_ref()
                .is_some_and(|time| *time == desired_frontier);

            while let Some(mint) = next_mint(
                &current_upper,
                &desired_frontier,
                &remap_upper,
                committed,
                lookahead.filter(|_| snapshot_in_progress),
            ) {
                let lower = current_upper
                    .as_option()
                    .copied()
                    .expect("a non-empty current upper, or nothing is minted");

                let upper = match mint {
                    Mint::Ceiling(ceiling) => {
                        let cap = ceiling_cap_set
                            .try_delayed(&lower)
                            .expect("ceiling capability holds the current upper");
                        trace!(
                            "persist_sink {collection_id}/{shard_id}: \
                                committing ceiling: {:?}",
                            ceiling
                        );
                        ceiling_output.give(&cap, Commitment { lower, ceiling });
                        committed = Some(ceiling);
                        continue;
                    }
                    Mint::Description(upper) => upper,
                };

                let batch_description = (current_upper.to_owned(), upper.to_owned());

                let cap = cap_set
                    .try_delayed(&lower)
                    .ok_or_else(|| {
                        format!(
                            "minter cannot delay {:?} to {:?}. \
                                Likely because we already emitted a \
                                batch description and delayed.",
                            cap_set, lower
                        )
                    })
                    .unwrap();

                trace!(
                    "persist_sink {collection_id}/{shard_id}: \
                        new batch_description: {:?}",
                    batch_description
                );

                output.give(&cap, batch_description);

                // We downgrade our capability to the batch
                // description upper, as there will never be
                // any overlapping descriptions.
                trace!(
                    "persist_sink {collection_id}/{shard_id}: \
                        downgrading to {:?}",
                    upper
                );
                cap_set.downgrade(upper.iter());
                ceiling_cap_set.downgrade(upper.iter());

                // The description that retires a ceiling covers everything the writers grouped
                // under it, so the next one starts fresh.
                committed = None;
                current_upper = upper;
            }

            tokio::select! {
                event = desired_input.next() => match event {
                    Some(Event::Data([_output_cap, _ceiling_cap, data_output_cap], mut data)) => {
                        // Just passthrough the data.
                        data_output.give_container(&data_output_cap, &mut data);
                    }
                    Some(Event::Progress(frontier)) => desired_frontier = frontier,
                    // Input is exhausted, so we can shut down.
                    None => return,
                },
                // During the snapshot, the frontier is pinned and the remap upper drives the
                // ceiling.
                _ = remap_input.ready() => {},
            }

            // The stream carries no data, only its frontier.
            while let Some(event) = remap_input.next_sync() {
                if let Event::Progress(frontier) = event {
                    remap_upper = frontier;
                }
            }
        }
    });

    (
        output_stream,
        ceiling_output_stream,
        data_output_stream,
        shutdown_button.press_on_drop(),
    )
}

/// A bound the minter commits ahead of the frontier, broadcast to the writers.
///
/// `lower` is the lower of the description that will end at or past `ceiling`, which the writers
/// need before that description exists, since a builder declares its lower when it opens.
#[derive(Clone, Copy, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, Deserialize, Serialize)]
struct Commitment {
    lower: mz_repr::Timestamp,
    ceiling: mz_repr::Timestamp,
}

/// What [`mint_batch_descriptions`] does with the frontier and the data it has seen.
#[derive(Debug, Clone, PartialEq, Eq)]
enum Mint {
    /// Emit a description ending here, the unit `append_batches` appends.
    Description(Antichain<mz_repr::Timestamp>),
    /// Commit to this ceiling and broadcast it to the writers. Not a description: it gives them a
    /// bound to group under, and binds the minter to mint nothing below it.
    Ceiling(mz_repr::Timestamp),
}

/// The next thing the minter emits, or `None` when there is nothing to do.
///
/// A description is derived from the frontier, which certifies that everything below it has
/// arrived. An outstanding `committed` ceiling suppresses that until the frontier reaches the
/// ceiling, which is what collapses a whole snapshot and the catch-up behind it into one
/// description.
///
/// * `current_upper`:
///     The upper of the last minted description, initialized from the shard.
///     Any data before this has already been processed.
/// * `desired_frontier`:
///     Data input frontier.
///     This frontier advances when the reclocked data stream advances.
/// * `remap_upper`:
///     The frontier of the remap shard, which advances on each successful probe.
/// * `committed` (Optional):
///     This is the current value of the ceiling. If set, the upper of a minted description will be
///     at or beyond this.
/// * `lookahead` (Optional):
///     If present, `desired_frontier` is pinned to `as_of` (e.g. due to snapshot), so we advance
///     `committed` as `remap_upper` + `lookahead` to consolidate in-flight data into one shared
///     batch.
fn next_mint(
    current_upper: &Antichain<mz_repr::Timestamp>,
    desired_frontier: &Antichain<mz_repr::Timestamp>,
    remap_upper: &Antichain<mz_repr::Timestamp>,
    committed: Option<mz_repr::Timestamp>,
    lookahead: Option<u64>,
) -> Option<Mint> {
    let frontier_reached = |ts: mz_repr::Timestamp| {
        PartialOrder::less_equal(&Antichain::from_elem(ts), desired_frontier)
    };
    if committed.is_none_or(frontier_reached)
        && PartialOrder::less_than(current_upper, desired_frontier)
    {
        return Some(Mint::Description(desired_frontier.clone()));
    }

    // A bunch of checks that will return None (meaning there's no ceiling).
    // If feature is not enabled or not snapshotting...
    let lookahead = lookahead?;

    // If the data shard has advanced to empty frontier...
    let lower = *current_upper.as_option()?;

    // If the remap shard has advanced to the empty frontier, or the add overflows because of
    // a large lookahead value (see `description_lookahead`).
    let ceiling = remap_upper.as_option()?.checked_add(lookahead)?;

    // lower can be beyond remap_upper + lookahead any time the current_upper jumps ahead of
    // of the remap_upper the operator is tracking.
    (lower < ceiling && committed.is_none_or(|c| c < ceiling)).then_some(Mint::Ceiling(ceiling))
}

/// Writes `desired_collection` to persist, but only for updates
/// that fall into batch a description that we get via `batch_descriptions`.
/// This forwards a `HollowBatch` (with additional metadata)
/// for any batch of updates that was written.
///
/// Every update below the ceiling `mint_batch_descriptions` commits goes into one open builder,
/// whatever its timestamp, so a pinned frontier costs one batch rather than one per timestamp. An
/// update that outruns the ceiling, or arrives while none is committed, has no bound to be grouped
/// under and writes a batch of its own timestamp, which is what the sink does for every update when
/// nothing is ever committed ahead of the frontier.
///
/// This operator assumes that the `desired_collection` comes pre-sharded.
///
/// This also and updates various metrics.
fn write_batches<'scope>(
    scope: Scope<'scope, mz_repr::Timestamp>,
    collection_id: GlobalId,
    operator_name: &str,
    target: &CollectionMetadata,
    batch_descriptions: Stream<
        'scope,
        mz_repr::Timestamp,
        Vec<(Antichain<mz_repr::Timestamp>, Antichain<mz_repr::Timestamp>)>,
    >,
    commitments: StreamVec<'scope, mz_repr::Timestamp, Commitment>,
    desired_collection: VecCollection<'scope, mz_repr::Timestamp, Result<Row, DataflowError>, Diff>,
    persist_clients: Arc<PersistClientCache>,
    source_statistics: SourceStatistics,
    busy_signal: Arc<Semaphore>,
) -> (
    StreamVec<'scope, mz_repr::Timestamp, HollowBatchAndMetadata<mz_repr::Timestamp>>,
    PressOnDropButton,
) {
    let worker_index = scope.index();

    let persist_location = target.persist_location.clone();
    let shard_id = target.data_shard;
    let target_relation_desc = target.relation_desc.clone();

    let mut write_op =
        AsyncOperatorBuilder::new(format!("{} write_batches", operator_name), scope.clone());

    let (output, output_stream) = write_op.new_output::<CapacityContainerBuilder<Vec<_>>>();

    let mut descriptions_input =
        write_op.new_input_for(batch_descriptions.broadcast(), Pipeline, &output);
    // Commitments only route updates into builders, so this input is disconnected: holding the
    // output back on it would stall every batch behind the minter's own progress.
    let mut commitments_input = write_op.new_disconnected_input(commitments.broadcast(), Pipeline);
    let mut desired_input = write_op.new_disconnected_input(desired_collection.inner, Pipeline);

    // This operator accepts the current and desired update streams for a `persist` shard.
    // It attempts to write out updates, starting from the current's upper frontier, that
    // will cause the changes of desired to be committed to persist, _but only those also past the
    // upper_.

    let shutdown_button = write_op.build(move |_capabilities| async move {
        // Builders for timestamps no ceiling covers, keyed by timestamp.
        //
        // A batch builder cannot be split, so an update may only join updates at other timestamps
        // once a bound they all fall below is known. Until then a timestamp gets a builder to
        // itself, which is safe without knowing the descriptions because a description covers a
        // timestamp entirely or not at all. It is finished only once its description is ready,
        // since rows at its timestamp can still be staged after that description is processed.
        let mut uncovered_builders: BTreeMap<mz_repr::Timestamp, SourceBatchBuilder> =
            BTreeMap::new();

        // The outstanding commitment: the bounds the open builder takes updates in, and the lower
        // it declares. The ceiling is raised to the description's own upper once that arrives, so
        // rows landing between arrival and readiness still join. `None` until the first commitment,
        // which leaves every timestamp writing its own batch.
        let mut commitment: Option<Commitment> = None;

        // The one open builder, holding every update inside the commitment regardless of
        // timestamp. It reaches `persist_blob_target_size` and spills its parts to blob, so what it
        // holds resident is one unflushed part however long the frontier stays pinned. Only ever
        // one, because the minter mints nothing below an outstanding ceiling, so there is exactly
        // one description in flight for it to be finished under.
        let mut open_builder: Option<SourceBatchBuilder> = None;

        // Contains descriptions of batches for which we know that we can
        // write data. We got these from the "centralized" operator that
        // determines batch descriptions for all writers.
        //
        // `Antichain` does not implement `Ord`, so we cannot use a `BTreeMap`. We need to search
        // through the map, so we cannot use the `mz_ore` wrapper either.
        #[allow(clippy::disallowed_types)]
        let mut in_flight_batches = std::collections::HashMap::<
            (Antichain<mz_repr::Timestamp>, Antichain<mz_repr::Timestamp>),
            Capability<mz_repr::Timestamp>,
        >::new();

        // TODO(aljoscha): We need to figure out what to do with error results from these calls.
        let persist_client = persist_clients
            .open(persist_location)
            .await
            .expect("could not open persist client");

        let write = persist_client
            .open_writer::<SourceData, (), mz_repr::Timestamp, StorageDiff>(
                shard_id,
                Arc::new(target_relation_desc),
                Arc::new(UnitSchema),
                Diagnostics {
                    shard_name: collection_id.to_string(),
                    handle_purpose: format!(
                        "storage::persist_sink::write_batches {}",
                        collection_id
                    ),
                },
            )
            .await
            .expect("could not open persist shard");

        // The current input frontiers.
        let mut batch_descriptions_frontier = Antichain::from_elem(Timestamp::minimum());
        let mut desired_frontier = Antichain::from_elem(Timestamp::minimum());

        // The frontiers of the inputs we have processed, used to avoid redoing work
        let mut processed_desired_frontier = Antichain::from_elem(Timestamp::minimum());
        let mut processed_descriptions_frontier = Antichain::from_elem(Timestamp::minimum());

        // A "safe" choice for the lower of new batches we are creating.
        let mut operator_batch_lower = Antichain::from_elem(Timestamp::minimum());

        while !(batch_descriptions_frontier.is_empty() && desired_frontier.is_empty()) {
            // Wait for either inputs to become ready
            tokio::select! {
                _ = descriptions_input.ready() => {},
                _ = commitments_input.ready() => {},
                _ = desired_input.ready() => {},
            }

            // Collect ready work from all three inputs. Commitments and descriptions are processed
            // before the data of the same round so that an update whose bound arrived alongside it
            // can go straight into the open builder instead of writing a batch of its own.
            let ready_commitments =
                std::iter::from_fn(|| commitments_input.next_sync()).collect_vec();
            let ready_descriptions =
                std::iter::from_fn(|| descriptions_input.next_sync()).collect_vec();
            let ready_events = std::iter::from_fn(|| desired_input.next_sync()).collect_vec();

            // We now start the async work for the input we received. Until we finish the dataflow
            // should be marked as busy.
            let permit = busy_signal.acquire().await;

            for event in ready_commitments {
                let Event::Data(_cap, data) = event else {
                    continue;
                };
                for next in data {
                    // The minter only commits while the source is snapshotting, which pins the
                    // frontier. The description that retires the commitment moves the frontier for
                    // good. Every commitment during that snapshot shares one lower.
                    let held = commitment.get_or_insert(next);
                    assert_eq!(
                        held.lower,
                        next.lower,
                        "persist_sink {collection_id}/{shard_id}: commitment {next:?} while {held:?} is outstanding"
                    );
                    held.ceiling = held.ceiling.max(next.ceiling);
                }
            }

            for event in ready_descriptions {
                match event {
                    Event::Data(cap, data) => {
                        // Ingest new batch descriptions.
                        for description in data {
                            if collection_id.is_user() {
                                trace!(
                                    "persist_sink {collection_id}/{shard_id}: \
                                        write_batches: \
                                        new_description: {:?}, \
                                        desired_frontier: {:?}, \
                                        batch_descriptions_frontier: {:?}",
                                    description, desired_frontier, batch_descriptions_frontier,
                                );
                            }

                            let (lower, upper) = (&description.0, &description.1);
                            let lower_ts = *lower
                                .as_option()
                                .expect("minted descriptions have a single-element lower");

                            // The description that retires a commitment ends at or past the
                            // ceiling, so rows landing between the description arriving and the
                            // description becoming ready can still join the builder that will
                            // finish under that description.
                            if let Some(held) = commitment.filter(|held| held.lower == lower_ts)
                                && let Some(upper_ts) = upper.as_option()
                            {
                                commitment = Some(Commitment {
                                    ceiling: held.ceiling.max(*upper_ts),
                                    ..held
                                });
                            }

                            match in_flight_batches.entry(description) {
                                std::collections::hash_map::Entry::Vacant(v) => {
                                    // This _should_ be `.retain`, but rust
                                    // currently thinks we can't use `cap`
                                    // as an owned value when using the
                                    // match guard `Some(event)`
                                    v.insert(cap.delayed(cap.time()));
                                }
                                std::collections::hash_map::Entry::Occupied(o) => {
                                    let (description, _) = o.remove_entry();
                                    panic!(
                                        "write_batches: sink {} got more than one \
                                            batch for description {:?}, in-flight: {:?}",
                                        collection_id, description, in_flight_batches
                                    );
                                }
                            }
                        }
                    }
                    Event::Progress(frontier) => {
                        batch_descriptions_frontier = frontier;
                    }
                }
            }

            for event in ready_events {
                match event {
                    Event::Data(_cap, data) => {
                        // Extract desired rows as positive contributions to `correction`.
                        if collection_id.is_user() && !data.is_empty() {
                            trace!(
                                "persist_sink {collection_id}/{shard_id}: \
                                    updates: {:?}, \
                                    in-flight-batches: {:?}, \
                                    desired_frontier: {:?}, \
                                    batch_descriptions_frontier: {:?}",
                                data,
                                in_flight_batches,
                                desired_frontier,
                                batch_descriptions_frontier,
                            );
                        }

                        for (row, ts, diff) in data {
                            if write.upper().less_equal(&ts) {
                                // Every description this operator has emitted was covered by the
                                // desired frontier at the time, so no update below
                                // `operator_batch_lower` can still be in flight. An update that
                                // arrives anyway belongs to a description that is already gone: it
                                // matches no later description, so its batch would never be
                                // appended and the update would be lost unnoticed. Not a
                                // `debug_assert!`, which compiles out of the optimized and release
                                // profiles and would leave the loss silent everywhere it matters.
                                assert!(
                                    operator_batch_lower.less_equal(&ts),
                                    "persist_sink {collection_id}/{shard_id}: update at {ts:?} \
                                    arrived below the emitted batch lower {operator_batch_lower:?}",
                                );

                                let inside =
                                    commitment.filter(|held| held.lower <= ts && ts < held.ceiling);
                                let builder = if let Some(held) = inside {
                                    // The description retiring the commitment is known to contain
                                    // it, so the update joins the one open builder whatever its
                                    // timestamp.
                                    open_builder.get_or_insert_with(|| {
                                        BatchBuilderAndMetadata::new(
                                            write.builder(Antichain::from_elem(held.lower)),
                                        )
                                    })
                                } else {
                                    // Nothing to group under, so the only lower this builder can
                                    // declare is the operator's own, the one lower at or below
                                    // every description that could come to cover it. That
                                    // declaration is what registers the batch truncated once it is
                                    // appended under a description's narrower bounds.
                                    uncovered_builders.entry(ts).or_insert_with(|| {
                                        BatchBuilderAndMetadata::new(
                                            write.builder(operator_batch_lower.clone()),
                                        )
                                    })
                                };
                                stage_update(builder, row, ts, diff).await;
                                source_statistics.inc_updates_staged_by(1);
                            }
                        }
                    }
                    Event::Progress(frontier) => {
                        desired_frontier = frontier;
                    }
                }
            }

            // We may have the opportunity to commit updates, if either frontier
            // has moved
            if PartialOrder::less_equal(&processed_desired_frontier, &desired_frontier)
                || PartialOrder::less_equal(
                    &processed_descriptions_frontier,
                    &batch_descriptions_frontier,
                )
            {
                trace!(
                    "persist_sink {collection_id}/{shard_id}: \
                        CAN emit: \
                        processed_desired_frontier: {:?}, \
                        processed_descriptions_frontier: {:?}, \
                        desired_frontier: {:?}, \
                        batch_descriptions_frontier: {:?}",
                    processed_desired_frontier,
                    processed_descriptions_frontier,
                    desired_frontier,
                    batch_descriptions_frontier,
                );

                trace!(
                    "persist_sink {collection_id}/{shard_id}: \
                        in-flight batches: {:?}, \
                        batch_descriptions_frontier: {:?}, \
                        desired_frontier: {:?}",
                    in_flight_batches, batch_descriptions_frontier, desired_frontier,
                );

                // We can write updates for a given batch description when
                // a) the batch is not beyond `batch_descriptions_frontier`,
                // and b) we know that we have seen all updates that would
                // fall into the batch, from `desired_frontier`.
                let ready_batches = in_flight_batches
                    .keys()
                    .filter(|(lower, upper)| {
                        !PartialOrder::less_equal(&batch_descriptions_frontier, lower)
                            && !PartialOrder::less_than(&desired_frontier, upper)
                    })
                    .cloned()
                    .collect::<Vec<_>>();

                trace!(
                    "persist_sink {collection_id}/{shard_id}: \
                        ready batches: {:?}",
                    ready_batches,
                );

                for batch_description in ready_batches {
                    let cap = in_flight_batches.remove(&batch_description).unwrap();

                    if collection_id.is_user() {
                        trace!(
                            "persist_sink {collection_id}/{shard_id}: \
                                emitting done batch: {:?}, cap: {:?}",
                            batch_description, cap
                        );
                    }

                    let (batch_lower, batch_upper) = batch_description;
                    let lower = *batch_lower
                        .as_option()
                        .expect("minted descriptions have a single-element lower");

                    let covered: Vec<_> = uncovered_builders
                        .keys()
                        .copied()
                        .filter(|ts| batch_lower.less_equal(ts) && !batch_upper.less_equal(ts))
                        .collect();
                    let mut batch_tokens = Vec::with_capacity(covered.len() + 1);
                    for ts in covered {
                        let builder = uncovered_builders.remove(&ts).expect("just looked up");
                        batch_tokens.push(
                            builder
                                .finish(batch_lower.clone(), batch_upper.clone())
                                .await,
                        );
                    }

                    // If snapshotting, and the as_of = T, where T is greater than the minimum,
                    // the minter emits a description covering `(0, T)` and `Commitment{lower:T}`.
                    // The open builder must wait for the appropriate description.
                    if let Some(held) = commitment.filter(|held| held.lower == lower)
                        && let Some(builder) = open_builder.take()
                    {
                        assert!(
                            !batch_upper.less_than(&held.ceiling),
                            "persist_sink {collection_id}/{shard_id}: description upper {batch_upper:?} is below commitment ceiling {commitment:?}",
                        );
                        commitment = None;
                        if collection_id.is_user() {
                            trace!(
                                "persist_sink {collection_id}/{shard_id}: \
                                    wrote batch from worker {}: ({:?}, {:?}), containing {:?}",
                                worker_index, batch_lower, batch_upper, builder.metrics
                            );
                        }

                        batch_tokens.push(
                            builder
                                .finish(batch_lower.clone(), batch_upper.clone())
                                .await,
                        );
                    }

                    // The next "safe" lower for batches is the meet (max) of all the emitted
                    // batches. These uppers all are not beyond the `desired_frontier`, which
                    // means all updates received by this operator will be beyond this lower.
                    // Additionally, the `mint_batch_descriptions` operator ensures that
                    // later-received batch descriptions will start beyond these uppers as
                    // well.
                    //
                    // It is impossible to emit a batch description that is
                    // beyond a not-yet emitted description in `in_flight_batches`, as
                    // a that description would also have been chosen as ready above.
                    operator_batch_lower = operator_batch_lower.join(&batch_upper);

                    output.give_container(&cap, &mut batch_tokens);

                    processed_desired_frontier.clone_from(&desired_frontier);
                    processed_descriptions_frontier.clone_from(&batch_descriptions_frontier);
                }
            } else {
                trace!(
                    "persist_sink {collection_id}/{shard_id}: \
                        cannot emit: processed_desired_frontier: {:?}, \
                        processed_descriptions_frontier: {:?}, \
                        desired_frontier: {:?}",
                    processed_desired_frontier, processed_descriptions_frontier, desired_frontier
                );
            }
            drop(permit);
        }
    });

    // Use `InspectCore::inspect_container` instead of `Inspect::inspect`.
    // `Inspect` carries a `where for<'a> &'a C: IntoIterator` bound, and on
    // macOS the solver can satisfy that bound by chasing objc2's
    // `&Retained<T>: IntoIterator` blanket impl into an endless
    // `Retained<Retained<…>>` chain, overflowing the recursion limit.
    // `InspectCore` has no such bound, so the cascade never starts. We
    // iterate the container by hand to recover the per-item callback.
    let output_stream = if collection_id.is_user() {
        InspectCore::inspect_container(output_stream, |event| {
            if let Ok((_, data)) = event {
                for d in data {
                    trace!("batch: {:?}", d);
                }
            }
        })
    } else {
        output_stream
    };

    (output_stream, shutdown_button.press_on_drop())
}

/// Fuses written batches together and appends them to persist using one
/// `compare_and_append` call. Writing only happens for batch descriptions where
/// we know that no future batches will arrive, that is, for those batch
/// descriptions that are not beyond the frontier of both the
/// `batch_descriptions` and `batches` inputs.
///
/// This also keeps the shared frontier that is stored in `compute_state` in
/// sync with the upper of the persist shard, and updates various metrics
/// and statistics objects.
fn append_batches<'scope>(
    scope: Scope<'scope, mz_repr::Timestamp>,
    collection_id: GlobalId,
    operator_name: String,
    target: &CollectionMetadata,
    batch_descriptions: Stream<
        'scope,
        mz_repr::Timestamp,
        Vec<(Antichain<mz_repr::Timestamp>, Antichain<mz_repr::Timestamp>)>,
    >,
    batches: StreamVec<'scope, mz_repr::Timestamp, HollowBatchAndMetadata<mz_repr::Timestamp>>,
    persist_clients: Arc<PersistClientCache>,
    storage_state: &StorageState,
    metrics: SourcePersistSinkMetrics,
    busy_signal: Arc<Semaphore>,
) -> (
    StreamVec<'scope, mz_repr::Timestamp, ()>,
    StreamVec<'scope, mz_repr::Timestamp, Rc<anyhow::Error>>,
    PressOnDropButton,
) {
    let persist_location = target.persist_location.clone();
    let shard_id = target.data_shard;
    let target_relation_desc = target.relation_desc.clone();

    // We can only be lenient with concurrent modifications when we know that
    // this source pipeline is using the feedback upsert operator, which works
    // correctly when multiple instances of an ingestion pipeline produce
    // different updates, because of concurrency/non-determinism.
    let use_continual_feedback_upsert = dyncfgs::STORAGE_USE_CONTINUAL_FEEDBACK_UPSERT
        .get(storage_state.storage_configuration.config_set());
    let bail_on_concurrent_modification = !use_continual_feedback_upsert;

    let mut read_only_rx = storage_state.read_only_rx.clone();

    let operator_name = format!("{} append_batches", operator_name);
    let mut append_op = AsyncOperatorBuilder::new(operator_name, scope.clone());

    let hashed_id = collection_id.hashed();
    let active_worker = usize::cast_from(hashed_id) % scope.peers() == scope.index();
    let worker_id = scope.index();

    // Both of these inputs are disconnected from the output capabilities of this operator, as
    // any output of this operator is entirely driven by the `compare_and_append`s. Currently
    // this operator has no outputs, but they may be added in the future, when merging with
    // the compute `persist_sink`.
    let mut descriptions_input =
        append_op.new_disconnected_input(batch_descriptions, Exchange::new(move |_| hashed_id));
    let mut batches_input =
        append_op.new_disconnected_input(batches, Exchange::new(move |_| hashed_id));

    let current_upper = Rc::clone(&storage_state.source_uppers[&collection_id]);
    if !active_worker {
        // This worker is not writing, so make sure it's "taken out" of the
        // calculation by advancing to the empty frontier.
        current_upper.borrow_mut().clear();
    }

    let source_statistics = storage_state
        .aggregated_statistics
        .get_source(&collection_id)
        .expect("statistics initialized")
        .clone();

    // An output whose frontier tracks the last successful compare and append of this operator
    let (_upper_output, upper_stream) = append_op.new_output::<CapacityContainerBuilder<Vec<_>>>();

    // This operator accepts the batch descriptions and tokens that represent
    // written batches. Written batches get appended to persist when we learn
    // from our input frontiers that we have seen all batches for a given batch
    // description.

    let (shutdown_button, errors) = append_op.build_fallible(move |caps| Box::pin(async move {
        let [upper_cap_set]: &mut [_; 1] = caps.try_into().unwrap();

        // This may SEEM unnecessary, but metrics contains extra
        // `DeleteOnDrop`-wrapped fields that will NOT be moved into this
        // closure otherwise, dropping and destroying
        // those metrics. This is because rust now only moves the
        // explicitly-referenced fields into closures.
        let metrics = metrics;

        // Contains descriptions of batches for which we know that we can
        // write data. We got these from the "centralized" operator that
        // determines batch descriptions for all writers.
        //
        // `Antichain` does not implement `Ord`, so we cannot use a `BTreeSet`. We need to search
        // through the set, so we cannot use the `mz_ore` wrapper either.
        #[allow(clippy::disallowed_types)]
        let mut in_flight_descriptions = std::collections::HashSet::<(
            Antichain<mz_repr::Timestamp>,
            Antichain<mz_repr::Timestamp>,
        )>::new();

        // In flight batches that haven't been `compare_and_append`'d yet, plus metrics about
        // the batch.
        let mut in_flight_batches = HashMap::<
            (Antichain<mz_repr::Timestamp>, Antichain<mz_repr::Timestamp>),
            BatchSet,
        >::new();

        source_statistics.initialize_rehydration_latency_ms();
        if !active_worker {
            // The non-active workers report that they are done snapshotting and hydrating.
            let empty_frontier = Antichain::new();
            source_statistics.initialize_snapshot_committed(&empty_frontier);
            source_statistics.update_rehydration_latency_ms(&empty_frontier);
            return Ok(());
        }

        let persist_client = persist_clients
            .open(persist_location)
            .await?;

        let mut write = persist_client
            .open_writer::<SourceData, (), mz_repr::Timestamp, StorageDiff>(
                shard_id,
                Arc::new(target_relation_desc),
                Arc::new(UnitSchema),
                Diagnostics {
                    shard_name:collection_id.to_string(),
                    handle_purpose: format!("persist_sink::append_batches {}", collection_id)
                },
            )
            .await?;

        // Initialize this sink's `upper` to the `upper` of the persist shard we are writing
        // to. Data from the source not beyond this time will be dropped, as it has already
        // been persisted.
        // In the future, sources will avoid passing through data not beyond this upper
        // VERY IMPORTANT: Only the active write worker must change the
        // shared upper. All other workers have already cleared this
        // upper above.
        current_upper.borrow_mut().clone_from(write.upper());
        upper_cap_set.downgrade(current_upper.borrow().iter());
        source_statistics.initialize_snapshot_committed(write.upper());

        // The current input frontiers.
        let mut batch_description_frontier = Antichain::from_elem(Timestamp::minimum());
        let mut batches_frontier = Antichain::from_elem(Timestamp::minimum());

        loop {
            tokio::select! {
                Some(event) = descriptions_input.next() => {
                    match event {
                        Event::Data(_cap, data) => {
                            // Ingest new batch descriptions.
                            for batch_description in data {
                                if collection_id.is_user() {
                                    trace!(
                                        "persist_sink {collection_id}/{shard_id}: \
                                            append_batches: sink {}, \
                                            new description: {:?}, \
                                            batch_description_frontier: {:?}",
                                        collection_id,
                                        batch_description,
                                        batch_description_frontier
                                    );
                                }

                                // This line has to be broken up, or
                                // rustfmt fails in the whole function :(
                                let is_new = in_flight_descriptions.insert(
                                    batch_description.clone()
                                );

                                assert!(
                                    is_new,
                                    "append_batches: sink {} got more than one batch \
                                        for a given description in-flight: {:?}",
                                    collection_id, in_flight_batches
                                );
                            }

                            continue;
                        }
                        Event::Progress(frontier) => {
                            batch_description_frontier = frontier;
                        }
                    }
                }
                Some(event) = batches_input.next() => {
                    match event {
                        Event::Data(_cap, data) => {
                            for batch in data {
                                let batch_description = (batch.lower.clone(), batch.upper.clone());

                                let batches = in_flight_batches
                                    .entry(batch_description)
                                    .or_default();

                                batches.finished.push(FinishedBatch {
                                    batch: write.batch_from_transmittable_batch(batch.batch),
                                    data_max_ts: batch.data_max_ts,
                                });
                                batches.batch_metrics += &batch.metrics;
                            }
                            continue;
                        }
                        Event::Progress(frontier) => {
                            batches_frontier = frontier;
                        }
                    }
                }
                else => {
                    // All inputs are exhausted, so we can shut down.
                    return Ok(());
                }
            };

            // Peel off any batches that are not beyond the frontier
            // anymore.
            //
            // It is correct to consider batches that are not beyond the
            // `batches_frontier` because it is held back by the writer
            // operator as long as a) the `batch_description_frontier` did
            // not advance and b) as long as the `desired_frontier` has not
            // advanced to the `upper` of a given batch description.

            let mut done_batches = in_flight_descriptions
                .iter()
                .filter(|(lower, _upper)| !PartialOrder::less_equal(&batches_frontier, lower))
                .cloned()
                .collect::<Vec<_>>();

            trace!(
                "persist_sink {collection_id}/{shard_id}: \
                    append_batches: in_flight: {:?}, \
                    done: {:?}, \
                    batch_frontier: {:?}, \
                    batch_description_frontier: {:?}",
                in_flight_descriptions,
                done_batches,
                batches_frontier,
                batch_description_frontier
            );

            // Append batches in order, to ensure that their `lower` and
            // `upper` line up.
            done_batches.sort_by(|a, b| {
                if PartialOrder::less_than(a, b) {
                    Ordering::Less
                } else if PartialOrder::less_than(b, a) {
                    Ordering::Greater
                } else {
                    Ordering::Equal
                }
            });

            let validate_part_bounds_on_write = write.validate_part_bounds_on_write();
            let mut todo = VecDeque::new();

            if validate_part_bounds_on_write {
                // Persist will expect each batch's bounds to match the append-time bounds; write them separately.
                for done_batch_metadata in done_batches.drain(..) {
                    in_flight_descriptions.remove(&done_batch_metadata);
                    let batch_set = in_flight_batches
                        .remove(&done_batch_metadata)
                        .unwrap_or_default();
                    todo.push_back((done_batch_metadata, batch_set));
                }
            } else {
                // Persist should allow batches to be written as part of a single append even when the bounds don't
                // match exactly; group all eligible batches together.
                let mut combined_batch_metadata = None;
                let mut combined_batch_set = BatchSet::default();
                for done_batch_metadata in done_batches.drain(..) {
                    in_flight_descriptions.remove(&done_batch_metadata);
                    let mut batch_set = in_flight_batches
                        .remove(&done_batch_metadata)
                        .unwrap_or_default();
                    match combined_batch_metadata.as_mut() {
                        Some((_, upper)) => *upper = done_batch_metadata.1,
                        None => combined_batch_metadata = Some(done_batch_metadata),
                    }
                    combined_batch_set.batch_metrics += &batch_set.batch_metrics;
                    combined_batch_set.finished.append(&mut batch_set.finished);
                }
                if let Some(done_batch_metadata) = combined_batch_metadata {
                    todo.push_back((done_batch_metadata, combined_batch_set))
                }
            };

            while let Some((done_batch_metadata, batch_set)) = todo.pop_front() {
                in_flight_descriptions.remove(&done_batch_metadata);

                let mut batches = batch_set.finished;

                trace!(
                    "persist_sink {collection_id}/{shard_id}: \
                        done batch: {:?}, {:?}",
                    done_batch_metadata,
                    batches
                );

                let (batch_lower, batch_upper) = done_batch_metadata;

                let batch_metrics = batch_set.batch_metrics;

                let mut to_append = batches.iter_mut().map(|b| &mut b.batch).collect::<Vec<_>>();

                let result = {
                    let maybe_err = if *read_only_rx.borrow() {

                        // We have to wait for either us coming out of read-only
                        // mode or someone else applying a write that covers our
                        // batch.
                        //
                        // If we didn't wait for the latter here, and just go
                        // around the loop again, we might miss a moment where
                        // _we_ have to write down a batch. For example when our
                        // input frontier advances to a state where we can
                        // write, and the read-write instance sees the same
                        // update but then crashes before it can append a batch.

                        let maybe_err = loop {
                            if collection_id.is_user() {
                                tracing::debug!(
                                    %worker_id,
                                    %collection_id,
                                    %shard_id,
                                    ?batch_lower,
                                    ?batch_upper,
                                    ?current_upper,
                                    "persist_sink is in read-only mode, waiting until we come out of it or the shard upper advances"
                                );
                            }

                            // We don't try to be smart here, and for example
                            // use `wait_for_upper_past()`. We'd have to use a
                            // select!, which would require cancel safety of
                            // `wait_for_upper_past()`, which it doesn't
                            // advertise.
                            let _ = tokio::time::timeout(
                                Duration::from_secs(1),
                                read_only_rx.changed(),
                            )
                            .await;

                            if !*read_only_rx.borrow() {
                                if collection_id.is_user() {
                                    tracing::debug!(
                                        %worker_id,
                                        %collection_id,
                                        %shard_id,
                                        ?batch_lower,
                                        ?batch_upper,
                                        ?current_upper,
                                        "persist_sink has come out of read-only mode"
                                    );
                                }

                                // It's okay to write now.
                                break Ok(());
                            }

                            let current_upper = write.fetch_recent_upper().await;

                            if PartialOrder::less_than(&batch_upper, current_upper) {
                                // We synthesize an `UpperMismatch` so that we can go
                                // through the same logic below for trimming down our
                                // batches.
                                //
                                // Notably, we are not trying to be smart, and teach the
                                // write operator about read-only mode. Writing down
                                // those batches does not append anything to the persist
                                // shard, and it would be a hassle to figure out in the
                                // write workers how to trim down batches in read-only
                                // mode, when the shard upper advances.
                                //
                                // Right here, in the logic below, we have all we need
                                // for figuring out how to trim our batches.

                                if collection_id.is_user() {
                                    tracing::debug!(
                                        %worker_id,
                                        %collection_id,
                                        %shard_id,
                                        ?batch_lower,
                                        ?batch_upper,
                                        ?current_upper,
                                        "persist_sink not appending in read-only mode"
                                    );
                                }

                                break Err(UpperMismatch {
                                    current: current_upper.clone(),
                                    expected: batch_lower.clone()}
                                );
                            }
                        };

                        maybe_err
                    } else {
                        // It's okay to proceed with the write.
                        Ok(())
                    };

                    match maybe_err {
                        Ok(()) => {
                            let _permit = busy_signal.acquire().await;

                            write.compare_and_append_batch(
                                &mut to_append[..],
                                batch_lower.clone(),
                                batch_upper.clone(),
                                validate_part_bounds_on_write,
                            )
                            .await
                            .expect("Invalid usage")
                        },
                        Err(e) => {
                            // We forward the synthesize error message, so that
                            // we go though the batch cleanup logic below.
                            Err(e)
                        }
                    }
                };


                // These metrics are independent of whether it was _us_ or
                // _someone_ that managed to commit a batch that advanced the
                // upper.
                source_statistics.update_snapshot_committed(&batch_upper);
                source_statistics.update_rehydration_latency_ms(&batch_upper);
                metrics
                    .progress
                    .set(mz_persist_client::metrics::encode_ts_metric(&batch_upper));

                if collection_id.is_user() {
                    trace!(
                        "persist_sink {collection_id}/{shard_id}: \
                            append result for batch ({:?} -> {:?}): {:?}",
                        batch_lower,
                        batch_upper,
                        result
                    );
                }

                match result {
                    Ok(()) => {
                        // Only update these metrics when we know that _we_ were
                        // successful.
                        let committed =
                            batch_metrics.inserts + batch_metrics.retractions;
                        source_statistics
                            .inc_updates_committed_by(committed);
                        metrics.processed_batches.inc();
                        metrics.row_inserts.inc_by(batch_metrics.inserts);
                        metrics.row_retractions.inc_by(batch_metrics.retractions);
                        metrics.error_inserts.inc_by(batch_metrics.error_inserts);
                        metrics
                            .error_retractions
                            .inc_by(batch_metrics.error_retractions);

                        current_upper.borrow_mut().clone_from(&batch_upper);
                        upper_cap_set.downgrade(current_upper.borrow().iter());
                    }
                    Err(mismatch) => {
                        // We tried to to a non-contiguous append, that won't work.
                        if PartialOrder::less_than(&mismatch.current, &batch_lower) {
                            // Best-effort attempt to delete unneeded batches.
                            future::join_all(batches.into_iter().map(|b| b.batch.delete())).await;

                            // We always bail when this happens, regardless of
                            // `bail_on_concurrent_modification`.
                            tracing::warn!(
                                "persist_sink({}): invalid upper! \
                                    Tried to append batch ({:?} -> {:?}) but upper \
                                    is {:?}. This is surpising and likely indicates \
                                    a bug in the persist sink, but we'll restart the \
                                    dataflow and try again.",
                                collection_id, batch_lower, batch_upper, mismatch.current,
                            );
                            anyhow::bail!("collection concurrently modified. Ingestion dataflow will be restarted");
                        } else if PartialOrder::less_than(&mismatch.current, &batch_upper) {
                            // The shard's upper was ahead of our batch's lower
                            // but not ahead of our upper. Cut down the
                            // description by advancing its lower to the current
                            // shard upper and try again. IMPORTANT: We can only
                            // advance the lower, meaning we cut updates away,
                            // we must not "extend" the batch by changing to a
                            // lower that is not beyond the current lower. This
                            // invariant is checked by the first if branch: if
                            // `!(current_upper < lower)` then it holds that
                            // `lower <= current_upper`.

                            // First, construct a new batch description with the
                            // lower advanced to the current shard upper.
                            let new_batch_lower = mismatch.current.clone();
                            let new_done_batch_metadata =
                                (new_batch_lower.clone(), batch_upper.clone());

                            // Re-append every batch that still holds something we owe, under the
                            // narrowed description. A batch may hold data on both sides of the new
                            // lower: persist registers it truncated and filters the updates
                            // outside the registered bounds on read, so the ones the concurrent
                            // writer already committed do not come back. A batch entirely below
                            // the new lower owes nothing and is deleted instead, to keep parts
                            // that would be truncated away in full out of shard state.
                            let mut batch_delete_futures = vec![];
                            let mut new_batch_set = BatchSet::default();
                            for batch in batches {
                                if new_batch_lower.less_equal(&batch.data_max_ts) {
                                    new_batch_set.finished.push(batch);
                                } else {
                                    batch_delete_futures.push(batch.batch.delete());
                                }
                            }

                            // Re-add the new batch to the list of batches to process.
                            todo.push_front((new_done_batch_metadata, new_batch_set));

                            // Best-effort attempt to delete unneeded batches.
                            future::join_all(batch_delete_futures).await;
                        } else {
                            // Best-effort attempt to delete unneeded batches.
                            future::join_all(batches.into_iter().map(|b| b.batch.delete())).await;
                        }

                        if bail_on_concurrent_modification {
                            tracing::warn!(
                                "persist_sink({}): invalid upper! \
                                    Tried to append batch ({:?} -> {:?}) but upper \
                                    is {:?}. This is not a problem, it just means \
                                    someone else was faster than us. We will try \
                                    again with a new batch description.",
                                collection_id, batch_lower, batch_upper, mismatch.current,
                            );
                            anyhow::bail!("collection concurrently modified. Ingestion dataflow will be restarted");
                        }
                    }
                }
            }
        }
    }));

    (upper_stream, errors, shutdown_button.press_on_drop())
}

#[cfg(test)]
mod tests {
    use std::cell::RefCell;
    use std::str::FromStr;

    use mz_build_info::DUMMY_BUILD_INFO;
    use mz_dyncfg::{ConfigUpdates, ConfigVal};
    use mz_ore::metrics::MetricsRegistry;
    use mz_ore::now::SYSTEM_TIME;
    use mz_ore::url::SensitiveUrl;
    use mz_persist_client::PersistLocation;
    use mz_persist_client::cfg::PersistConfig;
    use mz_persist_client::rpc::PubSubClientConnection;
    use mz_persist_types::ShardId;
    use mz_repr::{Datum, RelationDesc, SqlScalarType};
    use mz_storage_types::sources::SourceEnvelope;
    use mz_storage_types::sources::envelope::{KeyEnvelope, NoneEnvelope};
    use timely::dataflow::operators::Input;

    use crate::statistics::SourceStatisticsMetricDefs;

    use super::*;

    fn ts(t: u64) -> mz_repr::Timestamp {
        t.into()
    }

    fn frontier(t: u64) -> Antichain<mz_repr::Timestamp> {
        Antichain::from_elem(ts(t))
    }

    /// One step of a `write_batches` script.
    #[derive(Clone)]
    enum Step {
        /// Deliver a batch description, as `mint_batch_descriptions` would.
        Description(u64, u64),
        /// Deliver a commitment, as `mint_batch_descriptions` would.
        Commit(u64, u64),
        /// Deliver `count` updates at time `at`.
        Updates(u64, usize),
        /// Deliver `count` updates at time `at` with negated diffs, as the rewind of a snapshot
        /// does for rows the replication stream redelivers at their true offset.
        Retractions(u64, usize),
        /// Advance both input frontiers.
        AdvanceTo(u64),
        /// Advance the remap upper to `t`, as the remap operator's next binding would.
        Tick(u64),
    }

    /// What a batch emitted by `write_batches` carries, flattened for assertions.
    #[derive(Clone, Debug, PartialEq, Eq, PartialOrd, Ord)]
    struct EmittedBatch {
        lower: u64,
        upper: u64,
        data_max_ts: u64,
        inserts: u64,
    }

    /// Runs a timely worker to completion on a blocking thread.
    ///
    /// The test body is a single poll of the runtime's `block_on` future, so it runs under one
    /// tokio cooperative budget. A worker driven inline spends that budget on the operators'
    /// `select!` and semaphore polls, and once it is gone every such poll returns `Pending` and
    /// re-wakes itself, parking the operator for good with no error. Blocking threads have no
    /// budget.
    async fn run_worker<T: Send + 'static>(
        worker: impl FnOnce(&mut timely::worker::Worker) -> T + Send + Sync + 'static,
    ) -> T {
        mz_ore::task::spawn_blocking(
            || "persist_sink_test_worker",
            move || timely::execute_directly(worker),
        )
        .await
    }

    /// Drives `write_batches` through `script` and returns the batches it emitted, along with a
    /// handle to the shard so callers can append them and read the result back.
    async fn run_write_batches(
        target: CollectionMetadata,
        persist_clients: Arc<PersistClientCache>,
        script: Vec<Step>,
    ) -> Vec<(EmittedBatch, ProtoBatch)> {
        run_worker(move |worker| {
            // `ProtoBatch` is not `Ord`, so the captured stream is summarized on the way out
            // rather than going through `Capture`.
            let emitted = Rc::new(RefCell::new(Vec::new()));

            let (mut descs_input, mut ceilings_input, mut data_input, button) =
                worker.dataflow::<mz_repr::Timestamp, _, _>(|scope| {
                    let (descs_input, descs) = scope.new_input();
                    let (ceilings_input, ceilings) = scope.new_input();
                    let (data_input, data) = scope.new_input();

                    let source_id = GlobalId::User(0);
                    let stats_defs =
                        SourceStatisticsMetricDefs::register_with(&MetricsRegistry::new());
                    let source_statistics = SourceStatistics::new(
                        source_id,
                        0,
                        &stats_defs,
                        source_id,
                        &target.data_shard,
                        SourceEnvelope::None(NoneEnvelope {
                            key_envelope: KeyEnvelope::None,
                            key_arity: 0,
                        }),
                        Antichain::from_elem(Timestamp::minimum()),
                    );

                    let (batches, button) = write_batches(
                        scope,
                        source_id,
                        "test",
                        &target,
                        descs,
                        ceilings,
                        data.as_collection(),
                        persist_clients,
                        source_statistics,
                        Arc::new(Semaphore::new(Semaphore::MAX_PERMITS)),
                    );
                    let sink = Rc::clone(&emitted);
                    InspectCore::inspect_container(batches, move |event| {
                        if let Ok((_, data)) = event {
                            for b in data {
                                sink.borrow_mut().push((
                                    EmittedBatch {
                                        lower: b.lower.as_option().expect("single lower").into(),
                                        upper: b.upper.as_option().expect("single upper").into(),
                                        data_max_ts: b.data_max_ts.into(),
                                        inserts: b.metrics.inserts,
                                    },
                                    b.batch.clone(),
                                ));
                            }
                        }
                    });

                    (descs_input, ceilings_input, data_input, button)
                });

            // We want the operator to finish processing before we advance the script,
            // but when the operator is waiting for persist,
            // a plain timely `step` will find no work to do and return immediately.
            // So we repeatedly `step_or_park`, where `park`ing the thread forces a delay,
            // allowing the operator to finish waiting for persist and do its work on the next `step`.
            fn pump(worker: &mut timely::worker::Worker) {
                // no solid reason for this number, it's a selection that seems high enough to
                // work reliably, but not create a ton of delay (~32ms parked).
                for _ in 0..32 {
                    worker.step_or_park(Some(Duration::from_millis(1)));
                }
            }

            // Twice, so the operator is past opening its persist handles before the script runs.
            pump(worker);
            pump(worker);

            for step in script {
                match step {
                    Step::Description(lower, upper) => {
                        descs_input.send((frontier(lower), frontier(upper)));
                    }
                    Step::Commit(lower, ceiling) => ceilings_input.send(Commitment {
                        lower: ts(lower),
                        ceiling: ts(ceiling),
                    }),
                    Step::Updates(at, count) => {
                        for i in 0..i64::try_from(count).expect("small count") {
                            let row = Row::pack_slice(&[Datum::Int64(i)]);
                            data_input.send((Ok(row), ts(at), Diff::ONE));
                        }
                    }
                    Step::Retractions(at, count) => {
                        for i in 0..i64::try_from(count).expect("small count") {
                            let row = Row::pack_slice(&[Datum::Int64(i)]);
                            data_input.send((Ok(row), ts(at), -Diff::ONE));
                        }
                    }
                    Step::AdvanceTo(t) => {
                        descs_input.advance_to(ts(t));
                        ceilings_input.advance_to(ts(t));
                        data_input.advance_to(ts(t));
                    }
                    Step::Tick(..) => panic!("the writer takes no remap upper"),
                }
                // NOTE: `send` buffers until its container fills, so without a flush every step
                // before the next `advance_to` would reach the operator together, in one round.
                descs_input.flush();
                ceilings_input.flush();
                data_input.flush();
                pump(worker);
            }

            descs_input.close();
            ceilings_input.close();
            data_input.close();
            for _ in 0..1_000 {
                if !worker.step_or_park(Some(Duration::from_millis(1))) {
                    break;
                }
            }

            drop(button);
            while worker.step() {}

            let mut emitted = emitted.borrow().clone();
            emitted.sort_by(|a, b| a.0.cmp(&b.0));
            emitted
        })
        .await
    }

    /// What `mint_batch_descriptions` put on each of its two outputs.
    #[derive(Debug, Default, PartialEq, Eq)]
    struct Minted {
        descriptions: Vec<(u64, u64)>,
        commitments: Vec<(u64, u64)>,
    }

    /// Drives `mint_batch_descriptions` through `script` and returns what it emitted.
    ///
    /// Closing the input mints a final description with an empty upper, which is dropped here so a
    /// script only sees what it drove.
    async fn run_mint_batch_descriptions(
        target: CollectionMetadata,
        persist_clients: Arc<PersistClientCache>,
        lookahead: Option<u64>,
        snapshot_time: Option<Antichain<mz_repr::Timestamp>>,
        script: Vec<Step>,
    ) -> Minted {
        run_worker(move |worker| {
            let emitted = Rc::new(RefCell::new(Minted::default()));

            let (mut data_input, mut remap_input, button) = worker
                .dataflow::<mz_repr::Timestamp, _, _>(|scope| {
                    let (data_input, data) = scope.new_input();
                    let (remap_input, remap_upper) = scope.new_input::<Vec<()>>();

                    let (descriptions, ceilings, _passthrough, button) = mint_batch_descriptions(
                        scope,
                        GlobalId::User(0),
                        "test",
                        &target,
                        data.as_collection(),
                        remap_upper,
                        persist_clients,
                        lookahead,
                        snapshot_time,
                    );

                    let sink = Rc::clone(&emitted);
                    InspectCore::inspect_container(descriptions, move |event| {
                        if let Ok((_, data)) = event {
                            for (lower, upper) in data {
                                let (Some(lower), Some(upper)) =
                                    (lower.as_option(), upper.as_option())
                                else {
                                    continue;
                                };
                                sink.borrow_mut()
                                    .descriptions
                                    .push((lower.into(), upper.into()));
                            }
                        }
                    });

                    let sink = Rc::clone(&emitted);
                    InspectCore::inspect_container(ceilings, move |event| {
                        if let Ok((_, data)) = event {
                            for Commitment { lower, ceiling } in data {
                                sink.borrow_mut()
                                    .commitments
                                    .push(((*lower).into(), (*ceiling).into()));
                            }
                        }
                    });

                    (data_input, remap_input, button)
                });

            // The operator waits on persist off the timely scheduler, so a plain `step` can find
            // the worker idle while the operator is still starting up.
            fn pump(worker: &mut timely::worker::Worker) {
                for _ in 0..32 {
                    worker.step_or_park(Some(Duration::from_millis(1)));
                }
            }

            // Twice, so the operator has fetched the shard upper before the script runs.
            pump(worker);
            pump(worker);

            for step in script {
                match step {
                    Step::Description(..) | Step::Commit(..) => {
                        panic!("the minter emits these rather than taking them")
                    }
                    Step::Updates(at, count) => {
                        for i in 0..i64::try_from(count).expect("small count") {
                            let row = Row::pack_slice(&[Datum::Int64(i)]);
                            data_input.send((Ok(row), ts(at), Diff::ONE));
                        }
                    }
                    Step::Retractions(at, count) => {
                        for i in 0..i64::try_from(count).expect("small count") {
                            let row = Row::pack_slice(&[Datum::Int64(i)]);
                            data_input.send((Ok(row), ts(at), -Diff::ONE));
                        }
                    }
                    Step::AdvanceTo(t) => data_input.advance_to(ts(t)),
                    Step::Tick(t) => remap_input.advance_to(ts(t)),
                }
                // Sends are buffered until the handle is flushed or its time advances, and these
                // scripts deliver data at times a pinned frontier never reaches.
                data_input.flush();
                pump(worker);
            }

            data_input.close();
            remap_input.close();
            for _ in 0..1_000 {
                if !worker.step_or_park(Some(Duration::from_millis(1))) {
                    break;
                }
            }

            drop(button);
            while worker.step() {}

            emitted.take()
        })
        .await
    }

    /// Drives the real `mint_batch_descriptions` into the real `write_batches`, so the ordering
    /// between a committed ceiling and the data it covers is the operators' own rather than the
    /// script's.
    async fn run_sink_pipeline(
        target: CollectionMetadata,
        persist_clients: Arc<PersistClientCache>,
        lookahead: Option<u64>,
        snapshot_time: Option<Antichain<mz_repr::Timestamp>>,
        script: Vec<Step>,
    ) -> Vec<EmittedBatch> {
        run_worker(move |worker| {
            let emitted = Rc::new(RefCell::new(Vec::new()));

            let (mut data_input, mut remap_input, buttons) = worker
                .dataflow::<mz_repr::Timestamp, _, _>(|scope| {
                    let (data_input, data) = scope.new_input();
                    let (remap_input, remap_upper) = scope.new_input::<Vec<()>>();

                    let source_id = GlobalId::User(0);
                    let (descriptions, ceilings, passthrough, mint_button) =
                        mint_batch_descriptions(
                            scope,
                            source_id,
                            "test",
                            &target,
                            data.as_collection(),
                            remap_upper,
                            Arc::clone(&persist_clients),
                            lookahead,
                            snapshot_time,
                        );

                    let stats_defs =
                        SourceStatisticsMetricDefs::register_with(&MetricsRegistry::new());
                    let source_statistics = SourceStatistics::new(
                        source_id,
                        0,
                        &stats_defs,
                        source_id,
                        &target.data_shard,
                        SourceEnvelope::None(NoneEnvelope {
                            key_envelope: KeyEnvelope::None,
                            key_arity: 0,
                        }),
                        Antichain::from_elem(Timestamp::minimum()),
                    );

                    let (batches, write_button) = write_batches(
                        scope,
                        source_id,
                        "test",
                        &target,
                        descriptions,
                        ceilings,
                        passthrough.as_collection(),
                        persist_clients,
                        source_statistics,
                        Arc::new(Semaphore::new(Semaphore::MAX_PERMITS)),
                    );

                    let sink = Rc::clone(&emitted);
                    InspectCore::inspect_container(batches, move |event| {
                        if let Ok((_, data)) = event {
                            for b in data {
                                sink.borrow_mut().push(EmittedBatch {
                                    lower: b.lower.as_option().expect("single lower").into(),
                                    upper: b.upper.as_option().expect("single upper").into(),
                                    data_max_ts: b.data_max_ts.into(),
                                    inserts: b.metrics.inserts,
                                });
                            }
                        }
                    });

                    (data_input, remap_input, [mint_button, write_button])
                });

            fn pump(worker: &mut timely::worker::Worker) {
                for _ in 0..32 {
                    worker.step_or_park(Some(Duration::from_millis(1)));
                }
            }

            // Twice, so both operators are past opening their persist handles before the script.
            pump(worker);
            pump(worker);

            for step in script {
                match step {
                    Step::Description(..) | Step::Commit(..) => {
                        panic!("the minter emits these")
                    }
                    Step::Updates(at, count) => {
                        for i in 0..i64::try_from(count).expect("small count") {
                            let row = Row::pack_slice(&[Datum::Int64(i)]);
                            data_input.send((Ok(row), ts(at), Diff::ONE));
                        }
                    }
                    Step::Retractions(at, count) => {
                        for i in 0..i64::try_from(count).expect("small count") {
                            let row = Row::pack_slice(&[Datum::Int64(i)]);
                            data_input.send((Ok(row), ts(at), -Diff::ONE));
                        }
                    }
                    Step::AdvanceTo(t) => data_input.advance_to(ts(t)),
                    Step::Tick(t) => remap_input.advance_to(ts(t)),
                }
                data_input.flush();
                pump(worker);
            }

            // Closing makes every outstanding description ready. `step_or_park` reports whether
            // any dataflow remains, and the operators retire once their inputs are exhausted, so
            // stepping until it reports none drains everything they still owe.
            data_input.close();
            remap_input.close();
            for _ in 0..20_000 {
                if !worker.step_or_park(Some(Duration::from_millis(1))) {
                    break;
                }
            }

            drop(buttons);
            while worker.step() {}

            let mut emitted = emitted.borrow().clone();
            emitted.sort();
            emitted
        })
        .await
    }

    const PIPELINE_SNAPSHOT_ROWS: u64 = 200;
    const PIPELINE_PER_TIME: u64 = 3;
    const PIPELINE_PINNED_TIMES: u64 = 40;
    const PIPELINE_LOOKAHEAD: u64 = 8;
    /// The last data time is `PIPELINE_PINNED_TIMES + 1`, and the tick that stamps it puts the
    /// remap upper one past that, so the last ceiling ends a lookahead past the upper. The frontier
    /// has to reach it for the one description to be minted, which is the tail the lookahead costs.
    const PIPELINE_DONE: u64 = PIPELINE_PINNED_TIMES + 2 + PIPELINE_LOOKAHEAD;

    /// Ticks the remap upper past `t`, as the binding that stamps rows at `t` does.
    fn tick_past(t: u64) -> Step {
        Step::Tick(t + 1)
    }

    /// A snapshot at the pinned time, then thin replication data at each later time, each behind
    /// the tick that stamps it, then the frontier advance that ends the snapshot.
    fn pinned_snapshot_script() -> Vec<Step> {
        let mut script = vec![
            tick_past(1),
            Step::AdvanceTo(1),
            Step::Updates(1, usize::cast_from(PIPELINE_SNAPSHOT_ROWS)),
        ];
        for t in 2..=PIPELINE_PINNED_TIMES + 1 {
            script.push(tick_past(t));
            script.push(Step::Updates(t, usize::cast_from(PIPELINE_PER_TIME)));
        }
        script.push(Step::AdvanceTo(PIPELINE_DONE));
        script
    }

    /// The same rows as `pinned_snapshot_script`, but the snapshot's rows keep landing at the
    /// pinned time for as long as the snapshot runs, interleaved with the replication rows at
    /// later times.
    fn interleaved_snapshot_script() -> Vec<Step> {
        let per_round = usize::cast_from(PIPELINE_SNAPSHOT_ROWS / PIPELINE_PINNED_TIMES);
        let mut script = vec![tick_past(1), Step::AdvanceTo(1)];
        for t in 2..=PIPELINE_PINNED_TIMES + 1 {
            script.push(Step::Updates(1, per_round));
            script.push(tick_past(t));
            script.push(Step::Updates(t, usize::cast_from(PIPELINE_PER_TIME)));
        }
        script.push(Step::AdvanceTo(PIPELINE_DONE));
        script
    }

    /// Either pinned script writes one batch, under the one description the minter emits when the
    /// frontier reaches its ceiling. Every row is in it, whatever its timestamp.
    fn one_batch() -> Vec<EmittedBatch> {
        vec![EmittedBatch {
            lower: 1,
            upper: PIPELINE_DONE,
            data_max_ts: PIPELINE_PINNED_TIMES + 1,
            inserts: PIPELINE_SNAPSHOT_ROWS + PIPELINE_PINNED_TIMES * PIPELINE_PER_TIME,
        }]
    }

    /// The ceiling reaches the writer ahead of the updates it covers, so a pinned frontier groups
    /// every timestamp it accumulates into one batch.
    #[mz_ore::test(tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread"))]
    #[cfg_attr(miri, ignore)] // unsupported operation: returning ready events from epoll_wait
    async fn sink_pipeline_groups_a_pinned_frontier_into_one_batch() {
        let emitted = run_sink_pipeline(
            test_target(),
            test_persist_clients(),
            Some(PIPELINE_LOOKAHEAD),
            Some(frontier(1)),
            pinned_snapshot_script(),
        )
        .await;
        assert_eq!(emitted, one_batch());
    }

    /// The pinned time is the one time that stays incomplete for the whole snapshot, so rows at
    /// it arrive after rows at every later time. Grouping must not depend on data leaving a
    /// timestamp for good.
    #[mz_ore::test(tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread"))]
    #[cfg_attr(miri, ignore)] // unsupported operation: returning ready events from epoll_wait
    async fn sink_pipeline_keeps_one_batch_while_snapshot_rows_interleave() {
        let emitted = run_sink_pipeline(
            test_target(),
            test_persist_clients(),
            Some(PIPELINE_LOOKAHEAD),
            Some(frontier(1)),
            interleaved_snapshot_script(),
        )
        .await;
        assert_eq!(emitted, one_batch());
    }

    /// Without a lookahead the only description a pinned frontier gets is the one its release
    /// derives, which arrives behind every update, so each timestamp writes its own batch.
    #[mz_ore::test(tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread"))]
    #[cfg_attr(miri, ignore)] // unsupported operation: returning ready events from epoll_wait
    async fn sink_pipeline_writes_one_batch_per_timestamp_without_a_lookahead() {
        let emitted = run_sink_pipeline(
            test_target(),
            test_persist_clients(),
            None,
            Some(frontier(1)),
            pinned_snapshot_script(),
        )
        .await;

        assert_eq!(
            emitted.len(),
            usize::cast_from(PIPELINE_PINNED_TIMES + 1),
            "{emitted:?}"
        );
        assert!(
            emitted
                .iter()
                .all(|b| (b.lower, b.upper) == (1, PIPELINE_DONE)),
            "all finished under the one description the frontier's advance derives: {emitted:?}"
        );
        assert_eq!(
            emitted.iter().map(|b| b.inserts).sum::<u64>(),
            PIPELINE_SNAPSHOT_ROWS + PIPELINE_PINNED_TIMES * PIPELINE_PER_TIME,
        );
    }

    fn test_target() -> CollectionMetadata {
        CollectionMetadata {
            persist_location: PersistLocation {
                blob_uri: SensitiveUrl::from_str("mem://").expect("invalid URL"),
                consensus_uri: SensitiveUrl::from_str("mem://").expect("invalid URL"),
            },
            data_shard: ShardId::new(),
            relation_desc: RelationDesc::builder()
                .with_column("a", SqlScalarType::Int64.nullable(false))
                .finish(),
            txns_shard: None,
        }
    }

    /// Turn on part bounds validation so _append_ checks the bounds the sink writes.
    /// Both settings default off in code but are turned on in production.
    fn test_persist_clients() -> Arc<PersistClientCache> {
        let persist_cfg =
            PersistConfig::new_default_configs(&DUMMY_BUILD_INFO, SYSTEM_TIME.clone());
        let mut updates = ConfigUpdates::default();
        updates.add_dynamic(
            "persist_validate_part_bounds_on_write",
            ConfigVal::Bool(true),
        );
        updates.add_dynamic(
            "persist_validate_part_bounds_on_read",
            ConfigVal::Bool(true),
        );
        updates.apply(&persist_cfg.configs);
        Arc::new(PersistClientCache::new(
            persist_cfg,
            &MetricsRegistry::new(),
            |_, _| PubSubClientConnection::noop(),
        ))
    }

    /// A single `compare_and_append` over `[lower, upper)` carrying every emitted batch.
    fn one_append(
        emitted: Vec<(EmittedBatch, ProtoBatch)>,
        lower: u64,
        upper: u64,
    ) -> Vec<(u64, u64, Vec<ProtoBatch>)> {
        vec![(lower, upper, emitted.into_iter().map(|(_, p)| p).collect())]
    }

    /// One `compare_and_append` per description the batches were written for, ascending by lower.
    fn append_per_description(
        emitted: Vec<(EmittedBatch, ProtoBatch)>,
    ) -> Vec<(u64, u64, Vec<ProtoBatch>)> {
        let mut by_desc: BTreeMap<(u64, u64), Vec<ProtoBatch>> = BTreeMap::new();
        for (batch, proto) in emitted {
            by_desc
                .entry((batch.lower, batch.upper))
                .or_default()
                .push(proto);
        }
        by_desc
            .into_iter()
            .map(|((lower, upper), protos)| (lower, upper, protos))
            .collect()
    }

    /// Applies each entry in `appends` as one `compare_and_append` over `[lower, upper)`, in order,
    /// then reads the shard back as of `as_of` and returns the summed diffs.
    ///
    /// Batches written for different descriptions need separate entries, because persist rejects a
    /// batch whose upper is below the append upper. A `lower` above a batch's own lower registers
    /// it truncated, which is what the sink relies on when a concurrent writer has already claimed
    /// part of the range.
    ///
    /// Part bounds validation is what catches a batch whose parts reach outside their registered
    /// bounds, so the tests append for real rather than stopping at what `write_batches` emitted.
    async fn append_and_read_back(
        target: &CollectionMetadata,
        persist_clients: &PersistClientCache,
        appends: Vec<(u64, u64, Vec<ProtoBatch>)>,
        as_of: u64,
    ) -> i64 {
        let persist_client = persist_clients
            .open(target.persist_location.clone())
            .await
            .expect("could not open persist client");
        let mut write = persist_client
            .open_writer::<SourceData, (), mz_repr::Timestamp, StorageDiff>(
                target.data_shard,
                Arc::new(target.relation_desc.clone()),
                Arc::new(UnitSchema),
                Diagnostics::for_tests(),
            )
            .await
            .expect("could not open persist shard");

        assert!(
            write.validate_part_bounds_on_write(),
            "part bounds validation is off, so this append proves nothing about batch bounds"
        );

        for (lower, upper, protos) in appends {
            let mut batches: Vec<_> = protos
                .into_iter()
                .map(|proto| write.batch_from_transmittable_batch(proto))
                .collect();
            let mut to_append: Vec<_> = batches.iter_mut().collect();
            write
                .compare_and_append_batch(
                    &mut to_append[..],
                    frontier(lower),
                    frontier(upper),
                    true,
                )
                .await
                .expect("invalid usage")
                .expect("upper mismatch");

            assert_eq!(write.fetch_recent_upper().await, &frontier(upper));
        }

        let mut read = persist_client
            .open_leased_reader::<SourceData, (), mz_repr::Timestamp, StorageDiff>(
                target.data_shard,
                Arc::new(target.relation_desc.clone()),
                Arc::new(UnitSchema),
                Diagnostics::for_tests(),
                true,
            )
            .await
            .expect("invalid usage");
        let contents = read
            .snapshot_and_fetch(frontier(as_of))
            .await
            .expect("since <= as_of");

        contents.iter().map(|(_, _, d)| *d).sum()
    }

    /// Several descriptions can become ready in the same pass. Each is written under its own
    /// bounds, so every batch holds exactly the updates its description covers however that ready
    /// set happens to be ordered.
    ///
    /// NOTE: `in_flight_batches` is a `HashMap`, so the ready set comes out in no particular order.
    /// Enough descriptions are used here that an all-ascending pass is unlikely.
    #[mz_ore::test(tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread"))]
    #[cfg_attr(miri, ignore)] // unsupported operation: returning ready events from epoll_wait
    async fn write_batches_handles_descriptions_ready_in_one_pass() {
        const DESCRIPTIONS: u64 = 6;
        const DONE: u64 = DESCRIPTIONS * 2;

        let persist_clients = test_persist_clients();
        let target = test_target();

        // One update inside each of the tiling descriptions [0,2), [2,4), ... None of them is ready
        // until the frontier passes every upper, so they all come due together.
        let mut script = vec![];
        for i in 0..DESCRIPTIONS {
            script.push(Step::Updates(i * 2 + 1, 1));
        }
        for i in 0..DESCRIPTIONS {
            script.push(Step::Description(i * 2, i * 2 + 2));
        }
        script.push(Step::AdvanceTo(DONE));

        let emitted = run_write_batches(target.clone(), Arc::clone(&persist_clients), script).await;

        assert_eq!(
            emitted.len(),
            usize::cast_from(DESCRIPTIONS),
            "one batch per description, got {:?}",
            emitted.iter().map(|(b, _)| b).collect::<Vec<_>>()
        );
        for (batch, _) in &emitted {
            assert!(
                batch.lower <= batch.data_max_ts && batch.data_max_ts < batch.upper,
                "batch {batch:?} holds data outside the description it was written for"
            );
        }

        let total = append_and_read_back(
            &target,
            &persist_clients,
            append_per_description(emitted),
            DONE - 1,
        )
        .await;
        assert_eq!(
            total,
            i64::try_from(DESCRIPTIONS).expect("small"),
            "every update should be readable exactly once"
        );
    }

    /// Advances the shard upper to `upper` without writing data, standing in for a concurrent
    /// writer that reached part of the range first.
    async fn advance_shard_upper(
        target: &CollectionMetadata,
        persist_clients: &PersistClientCache,
        upper: u64,
    ) {
        let persist_client = persist_clients
            .open(target.persist_location.clone())
            .await
            .expect("could not open persist client");
        let mut write = persist_client
            .open_writer::<SourceData, (), mz_repr::Timestamp, StorageDiff>(
                target.data_shard,
                Arc::new(target.relation_desc.clone()),
                Arc::new(UnitSchema),
                Diagnostics::for_tests(),
            )
            .await
            .expect("could not open persist shard");

        let empty: Vec<((SourceData, ()), mz_repr::Timestamp, StorageDiff)> = Vec::new();
        write
            .compare_and_append(
                &empty,
                Antichain::from_elem(Timestamp::minimum()),
                frontier(upper),
            )
            .await
            .expect("invalid usage")
            .expect("upper mismatch");

        // Otherwise the handle's heartbeat task outlives the test and nextest reports a leak.
        write.expire().await;
    }

    /// A batch spanning many timestamps stays usable when a concurrent writer has raised the shard
    /// upper into the middle of it. Persist registers the batch under the narrowed description and
    /// filters the updates outside those bounds on read, so the sink can hand a straddling batch
    /// over as is rather than discarding it and rebuilding from the new upper.
    ///
    /// This is the property that lets `write_batches` coalesce a pinned frontier into one batch
    /// without giving up the ability to recover from a concurrent append.
    #[mz_ore::test(tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread"))]
    #[cfg_attr(miri, ignore)] // unsupported operation: returning ready events from epoll_wait
    async fn a_straddling_batch_is_usable_under_a_raised_lower() {
        const TIMES: u64 = 10;
        const DONE: u64 = TIMES + 1;
        // Inside the batch's data range, so the batch holds updates on both sides of it.
        const RAISED_LOWER: u64 = 5;

        let persist_clients = test_persist_clients();
        let target = test_target();

        // One update at each of times 1..=TIMES, all going into the builder of a description
        // already in hand, so they coalesce into one batch whose data spans the whole range.
        let emitted = run_write_batches(
            target.clone(),
            Arc::clone(&persist_clients),
            committed_ceiling_script(1, TIMES - 1, DONE),
        )
        .await;
        assert_eq!(
            emitted.len(),
            1,
            "expected one coalesced batch, got {:?}",
            emitted.iter().map(|(b, _)| b).collect::<Vec<_>>()
        );

        advance_shard_upper(&target, &persist_clients, RAISED_LOWER).await;

        // Append the straddling batch under the raised lower, as the sink does after an
        // `UpperMismatch` cuts the description down.
        let total = append_and_read_back(
            &target,
            &persist_clients,
            one_append(emitted, RAISED_LOWER, DONE),
            DONE - 1,
        )
        .await;

        assert_eq!(
            total,
            i64::try_from(TIMES - RAISED_LOWER + 1).expect("small"),
            "only the updates at or above the raised lower should be readable, and all of them"
        );
    }

    /// The rewind mechanism retracts the snapshot's copy of every row the replication stream
    /// redelivers at its true offset, and both land at the pinned timestamp. They share the
    /// covering description's builder, so the batch carries both signs and they net out on read.
    #[mz_ore::test(tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread"))]
    #[cfg_attr(miri, ignore)] // unsupported operation: returning ready events from epoll_wait
    async fn write_batches_carries_rewind_retractions_into_the_covering_batch() {
        const ROWS: usize = 512;
        const DONE: u64 = 4;

        let persist_clients = test_persist_clients();
        let target = test_target();

        let emitted = run_write_batches(
            target.clone(),
            Arc::clone(&persist_clients),
            vec![
                Step::Commit(0, DONE),
                Step::Description(0, DONE),
                Step::AdvanceTo(1),
                Step::Updates(1, ROWS),
                Step::Retractions(1, ROWS - 1),
                Step::AdvanceTo(DONE),
            ],
        )
        .await;

        assert_eq!(
            emitted.len(),
            1,
            "both signs belong to the one description, got {:?}",
            emitted.iter().map(|(b, _)| b).collect::<Vec<_>>()
        );

        let total = append_and_read_back(
            &target,
            &persist_clients,
            one_append(emitted, 0, DONE),
            DONE - 1,
        )
        .await;
        assert_eq!(total, 1, "the shard should hold exactly the surviving row");
    }

    /// A description that covers no updates must emit no batch, rather than open a builder that
    /// has no data bounds to register.
    #[mz_ore::test(tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread"))]
    #[cfg_attr(miri, ignore)] // unsupported operation: returning ready events from epoll_wait
    async fn write_batches_emits_nothing_for_a_description_with_no_updates() {
        const SPLIT: u64 = 4;
        const DONE: u64 = 8;

        // Two descriptions in hand, with data only in the second.
        let emitted = run_write_batches(
            test_target(),
            test_persist_clients(),
            vec![
                Step::Description(0, SPLIT),
                Step::Description(SPLIT, DONE),
                Step::AdvanceTo(SPLIT),
                Step::Updates(SPLIT, 8),
                Step::AdvanceTo(DONE),
            ],
        )
        .await;

        assert_eq!(
            emitted
                .iter()
                .map(|(b, _)| (b.lower, b.upper))
                .collect::<Vec<_>>(),
            vec![(SPLIT, DONE)],
            "only the description holding data should produce a batch",
        );
    }

    /// A snapshot at time 1 pinning the frontier while replication delivers one update at each of
    /// times 2..=`pinned_times`+1, with the description that covers the whole snapshot arriving
    /// only at the end. This is the sink without a budget: nothing is committed ahead of the
    /// frontier, so no update ever has bounds to be grouped under while it is staged.
    fn pinned_frontier_script(snapshot_rows: usize, pinned_times: u64, done: u64) -> Vec<Step> {
        let mut script = vec![Step::Updates(1, snapshot_rows)];
        for t in 2..=pinned_times + 1 {
            script.push(Step::Updates(t, 1));
        }
        // The minter holds a capability at the shard upper for the whole snapshot, so its one
        // description is emitted there, and the frontier then jumps past everything staged.
        script.push(Step::Description(0, done));
        script.push(Step::AdvanceTo(done));
        script
    }

    /// The same snapshot with a ceiling committed first, which is what the minter does behind a
    /// frontier that is not moving. The description itself only arrives once the frontier reaches
    /// the ceiling, which is what ends the script.
    fn committed_ceiling_script(snapshot_rows: usize, pinned_times: u64, done: u64) -> Vec<Step> {
        let mut script = vec![
            Step::Commit(0, done),
            Step::AdvanceTo(1),
            Step::Updates(1, snapshot_rows),
        ];
        for t in 2..=pinned_times + 1 {
            script.push(Step::Updates(t, 1));
        }
        script.push(Step::Description(0, done));
        script.push(Step::AdvanceTo(done));
        script
    }

    /// A snapshot pins the export's frontier at its as_of while concurrent replication keeps
    /// delivering updates at later times. Without a description in hand there are no bounds to
    /// group under, so each timestamp writes a batch of its own, all finished under the one
    /// description that arrives when the snapshot finishes.
    #[mz_ore::test(tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread"))]
    #[cfg_attr(miri, ignore)] // unsupported operation: returning ready events from epoll_wait
    async fn write_batches_writes_one_batch_per_timestamp_before_a_description_covers_them() {
        const SNAPSHOT_ROWS: usize = 4;
        const PINNED_TIMES: u64 = 16;
        const DONE: u64 = PINNED_TIMES + 2;

        let persist_clients = test_persist_clients();
        let target = test_target();

        let emitted = run_write_batches(
            target.clone(),
            Arc::clone(&persist_clients),
            pinned_frontier_script(SNAPSHOT_ROWS, PINNED_TIMES, DONE),
        )
        .await;

        // Every batch carries the description's bounds, since that is what they are finished
        // under, and holds a single timestamp's updates. One timestamp per batch is what makes
        // writing before the covering description is known safe, since a single-timestamp batch
        // cannot span a description boundary.
        let expected: Vec<_> = std::iter::once(EmittedBatch {
            lower: 0,
            upper: DONE,
            data_max_ts: 1,
            inserts: u64::cast_from(SNAPSHOT_ROWS),
        })
        .chain((2..=PINNED_TIMES + 1).map(|ts| EmittedBatch {
            lower: 0,
            upper: DONE,
            data_max_ts: ts,
            inserts: 1,
        }))
        .collect();
        assert_eq!(
            emitted.iter().map(|(b, _)| b.clone()).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
            expected,
        );

        let total = append_and_read_back(
            &target,
            &persist_clients,
            one_append(emitted, 0, DONE),
            DONE - 1,
        )
        .await;
        assert_eq!(
            total,
            i64::try_from(SNAPSHOT_ROWS).expect("small")
                + i64::try_from(PINNED_TIMES).expect("small"),
            "the same updates should be readable however they were batched"
        );
    }

    /// The writer drains descriptions ahead of data in each round, and input keeps queueing while
    /// it awaits persist, so rows at a timestamp can be staged after the description covering them
    /// was processed. They belong in the batch that timestamp already has.
    #[mz_ore::test(tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread"))]
    #[cfg_attr(miri, ignore)] // unsupported operation: returning ready events from epoll_wait
    async fn write_batches_keeps_one_batch_per_timestamp_for_rows_after_the_description() {
        const ROWS: usize = 4;
        const DONE: u64 = 4;

        let persist_clients = test_persist_clients();
        let target = test_target();

        let emitted = run_write_batches(
            target.clone(),
            Arc::clone(&persist_clients),
            vec![
                Step::Updates(1, ROWS),
                Step::Description(0, DONE),
                Step::Updates(1, ROWS),
                Step::AdvanceTo(DONE),
            ],
        )
        .await;

        assert_eq!(
            emitted.iter().map(|(b, _)| b.clone()).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
            vec![EmittedBatch {
                lower: 0,
                upper: DONE,
                data_max_ts: 1,
                inserts: u64::cast_from(ROWS * 2),
            }],
        );

        let total = append_and_read_back(
            &target,
            &persist_clients,
            one_append(emitted, 0, DONE),
            DONE - 1,
        )
        .await;
        assert_eq!(total, i64::try_from(ROWS * 2).expect("small"));
    }

    /// The remap upper is broadcast, so the minting worker paces on its own copy of it without a
    /// row on any worker: on the pin a lookahead past the upper, then past each tick.
    #[mz_ore::test(tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread"))]
    #[cfg_attr(miri, ignore)] // unsupported operation: returning ready events from epoll_wait
    async fn mint_batch_descriptions_paces_on_the_remap_upper_without_data() {
        const PEERS: usize = 2;

        let source_id = GlobalId::User(0);
        let target = test_target();
        let persist_clients = test_persist_clients();
        let emitted = Arc::new(std::sync::Mutex::new(Vec::new()));
        // `timely::execute` runs each worker on a thread of its own, which is outside the test's
        // runtime, and the operators drive persist there.
        let runtime = tokio::runtime::Handle::current();

        let collected = Arc::clone(&emitted);
        mz_ore::task::spawn_blocking(
            || "persist_sink_test_workers",
            move || {
                timely::execute::execute(timely::Config::process(PEERS), move |worker| {
                    let _guard = runtime.enter();
                    let emitted = Arc::clone(&emitted);
                    let target = target.clone();
                    let persist_clients = Arc::clone(&persist_clients);

                    let (mut data_input, mut remap_input, button) = worker
                        .dataflow::<mz_repr::Timestamp, _, _>(|scope| {
                            let (data_input, data) = scope.new_input();
                            let (remap_input, remap_upper) = scope.new_input::<Vec<()>>();
                            let (_descriptions, ceilings, _passthrough, button) =
                                mint_batch_descriptions(
                                    scope,
                                    source_id,
                                    "test",
                                    &target,
                                    data.as_collection(),
                                    remap_upper,
                                    persist_clients,
                                    Some(4),
                                    Some(frontier(1)),
                                );

                            InspectCore::inspect_container(ceilings, move |event| {
                                if let Ok((_, data)) = event {
                                    let mut emitted = emitted.lock().expect("not poisoned");
                                    for commitment in data {
                                        emitted.push(u64::from(commitment.ceiling));
                                    }
                                }
                            });

                            (data_input, remap_input, button)
                        });

                    fn pump(worker: &mut timely::worker::Worker) {
                        for _ in 0..64 {
                            worker.step_or_park(Some(Duration::from_millis(1)));
                        }
                    }

                    pump(worker);
                    pump(worker);

                    // Both frontiers are global, so every worker advances both. The data frontier
                    // pins at 1 for the rest of the script, and no worker ever sends a row.
                    remap_input.advance_to(ts(2));
                    remap_input.flush();
                    pump(worker);
                    data_input.advance_to(ts(1));
                    data_input.flush();
                    pump(worker);

                    for at in [5, 9, 11] {
                        remap_input.advance_to(ts(at));
                        remap_input.flush();
                        pump(worker);
                    }

                    data_input.close();
                    remap_input.close();
                    for _ in 0..2_000 {
                        if !worker.step_or_park(Some(Duration::from_millis(1))) {
                            break;
                        }
                    }

                    drop(button);
                    while worker.step() {}
                })
                .expect("timely configuration")
                .join()
                .into_iter()
                .collect::<Result<Vec<_>, _>>()
                .expect("timely worker panicked");
            },
        )
        .await;

        let collected = collected.lock().expect("not poisoned").clone();
        assert_eq!(collected, vec![6, 9, 13, 15]);
    }

    #[mz_ore::test]
    fn description_lookahead_disables_at_zero_and_floors_at_the_timestamp_interval() {
        let secs = Duration::from_secs;

        assert_eq!(
            description_lookahead(Duration::ZERO, secs(1)),
            None,
            "zero is what turns committing ahead off"
        );
        // A lookahead shorter than the step the remap upper moves in can be outrun by the next
        // tick's rows.
        assert_eq!(
            description_lookahead(Duration::from_millis(1), Duration::from_millis(250)),
            Some(250),
            "a fine interval floors low, so a source that ticks fast is not forced to over-commit"
        );
        assert_eq!(
            description_lookahead(Duration::from_millis(1), secs(10)),
            Some(10_000),
            "a coarse interval floors high, or the next tick's rows clear the ceiling"
        );
        assert_eq!(
            description_lookahead(secs(5), Duration::from_millis(250)),
            Some(5_000),
            "a configured lookahead above the floor stands"
        );
    }

    /// The ceiling is committed the moment the frontier pins, a lookahead past the remap upper,
    /// and re-committed as the upper ticks, all under the one description's lower. The rows do not
    /// enter into it. Without a lookahead a pinned frontier commits nothing.
    #[mz_ore::test(tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread"))]
    #[cfg_attr(miri, ignore)] // unsupported operation: returning ready events from epoll_wait
    async fn mint_batch_descriptions_commits_a_ceiling_ahead_of_the_remap_upper() {
        let script = vec![
            Step::Tick(2),
            // Data arrives at times the frontier never reaches, which is a pinned frontier.
            Step::AdvanceTo(1),
            Step::Tick(5),
            Step::Updates(4, 4),
            Step::Tick(9),
            Step::Updates(8, 4),
            Step::Tick(11),
        ];

        assert_eq!(
            run_mint_batch_descriptions(
                test_target(),
                test_persist_clients(),
                Some(4),
                Some(frontier(1)),
                script.clone(),
            )
            .await,
            Minted {
                // Only the one the first frontier advance derives. The description spanning the
                // snapshot needs the frontier to reach the ceiling, which this script never does.
                descriptions: vec![(0, 1)],
                // On the pin, then a lookahead past each tick.
                commitments: vec![(1, 6), (1, 9), (1, 13), (1, 15)],
            },
        );

        assert_eq!(
            run_mint_batch_descriptions(
                test_target(),
                test_persist_clients(),
                None,
                Some(frontier(1)),
                script
            )
            .await,
            Minted {
                descriptions: vec![(0, 1)],
                commitments: vec![],
            },
            "without a lookahead a pinned frontier commits nothing",
        );
    }

    /// Commitments are made only while the frontier sits at the snapshot time. Once the frontier
    /// moves, no more commitments are made, and the outstanding commitment is honored until the
    /// frontier reaches it.
    #[mz_ore::test(tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread"))]
    #[cfg_attr(miri, ignore)] // unsupported operation: returning ready events from epoll_wait
    async fn mint_batch_descriptions_honors_its_commitment_once_the_frontier_moves_again() {
        let emitted = run_mint_batch_descriptions(
            test_target(),
            test_persist_clients(),
            Some(4),
            Some(frontier(1)),
            vec![
                Step::Tick(2),
                Step::AdvanceTo(1),
                // Below the ceiling committed on the pin, so this mints nothing.
                Step::AdvanceTo(2),
                // The snapshot is over, so this commits nothing either.
                Step::Tick(9),
                Step::AdvanceTo(6),
            ],
        )
        .await;

        assert_eq!(
            emitted,
            Minted {
                descriptions: vec![(0, 1), (1, 6)],
                commitments: vec![(1, 6)],
            },
            "past hydration the minter should wait for the frontier to pass its ceiling and \
            derive from the frontier alone after that",
        );
    }

    /// An export that does not snapshot in this incarnation is given no snapshot time and never
    /// commits ahead of its frontier, so a restart of a caught up source has no window where it
    /// might.
    #[mz_ore::test(tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread"))]
    #[cfg_attr(miri, ignore)] // unsupported operation: returning ready events from epoll_wait
    async fn mint_batch_descriptions_does_not_commit_without_a_snapshot_time() {
        // The shape of a restart: the frontier leaves the minimum once, and the remap upper runs
        // past it before it moves again.
        let script = vec![Step::Tick(2), Step::AdvanceTo(1), Step::Tick(9)];

        assert_eq!(
            run_mint_batch_descriptions(
                test_target(),
                test_persist_clients(),
                Some(4),
                None,
                script.clone(),
            )
            .await,
            Minted {
                descriptions: vec![(0, 1)],
                commitments: vec![],
            },
        );

        assert_eq!(
            run_mint_batch_descriptions(
                test_target(),
                test_persist_clients(),
                Some(4),
                Some(frontier(1)),
                script,
            )
            .await,
            Minted {
                descriptions: vec![(0, 1)],
                commitments: vec![(1, 6), (1, 13)],
            },
            "the same script commits when the export snapshots at 1",
        );
    }

    /// A source may send rows at the snapshot time under a delayed capability before it has
    /// downgraded its own, so rows can reach the minter while the frontier still sits at the
    /// minimum, with the remap upper ticking all the while. Nothing is committed until the frontier
    /// reaches the snapshot time, so the commitment's lower is the snapshot time and not the shard
    /// upper the rows were seen under.
    #[mz_ore::test(tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread"))]
    #[cfg_attr(miri, ignore)] // unsupported operation: returning ready events from epoll_wait
    async fn mint_batch_descriptions_waits_for_the_frontier_to_reach_the_snapshot_time() {
        let emitted = run_mint_batch_descriptions(
            test_target(),
            test_persist_clients(),
            Some(4),
            Some(frontier(1)),
            vec![
                Step::Tick(3),
                Step::Updates(1, 1),
                Step::AdvanceTo(1),
                Step::Tick(4),
                Step::AdvanceTo(8),
            ],
        )
        .await;
        assert_eq!(
            emitted,
            Minted {
                descriptions: vec![(0, 1), (1, 8)],
                // On the pin a lookahead past the upper, then re-committed past the tick.
                commitments: vec![(1, 7), (1, 8)],
            },
        );
    }

    /// A fresh source's snapshot lands at the minimum and its frontier never leaves it during the
    /// snapshot, so no progress statement announces the pin. The first ceiling goes out on the
    /// first activation, ahead of every row and before the remap upper is known, and is raised as
    /// the upper ticks.
    #[mz_ore::test(tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread"))]
    #[cfg_attr(miri, ignore)] // unsupported operation: returning ready events from epoll_wait
    async fn mint_batch_descriptions_commits_on_the_first_activation_at_a_minimum_snapshot_time() {
        // Replication rows land first, the snapshot's own rows at the pinned time arrive behind
        // them, and the frontier never moves.
        let script = vec![
            Step::Tick(6),
            Step::Updates(5, 4),
            Step::Updates(0, 4),
            Step::Tick(10),
            Step::Updates(9, 2),
        ];

        assert_eq!(
            run_mint_batch_descriptions(
                test_target(),
                test_persist_clients(),
                Some(4),
                Some(frontier(0)),
                script.clone(),
            )
            .await,
            Minted {
                // The frontier never moves, so nothing is derived from it.
                descriptions: vec![],
                // A lookahead past the minimum before anything arrives, then past each tick. The
                // rows sit below the outstanding ceiling and re-commit nothing.
                commitments: vec![(0, 4), (0, 10), (0, 14)],
            },
        );

        assert_eq!(
            run_mint_batch_descriptions(
                test_target(),
                test_persist_clients(),
                Some(4),
                Some(frontier(1)),
                script,
            )
            .await,
            Minted::default(),
            "a snapshot time the frontier has not reached commits nothing, however far the remap \
            upper runs",
        );
    }

    #[mz_ore::test]
    fn next_mint_derives_from_the_frontier_or_commits_a_ceiling_ahead() {
        // Everything below the frontier has arrived, so that is the description, lookahead or not.
        assert_eq!(
            next_mint(&frontier(5), &frontier(7), &frontier(100), None, Some(8)),
            Some(Mint::Description(frontier(7)))
        );
        assert_eq!(
            next_mint(&frontier(5), &frontier(7), &frontier(0), None, None),
            Some(Mint::Description(frontier(7)))
        );

        // A pinned frontier with no lookahead has nothing to commit.
        assert_eq!(
            next_mint(&frontier(5), &frontier(5), &frontier(14), None, None),
            None
        );
        // Pinned with nothing committed yet: the ceiling goes out a lookahead past the remap
        // upper.
        assert_eq!(
            next_mint(&frontier(5), &frontier(5), &frontier(6), None, Some(8)),
            Some(Mint::Ceiling(ts(14)))
        );
        // A ceiling already a lookahead past the upper stands, so the minter does not re-commit
        // every round.
        assert_eq!(
            next_mint(
                &frontier(5),
                &frontier(5),
                &frontier(6),
                Some(ts(14)),
                Some(8)
            ),
            None
        );
        // An upper that ticked re-commits, a lookahead past where it reached.
        assert_eq!(
            next_mint(
                &frontier(5),
                &frontier(5),
                &frontier(7),
                Some(ts(14)),
                Some(8)
            ),
            Some(Mint::Ceiling(ts(15)))
        );
        // An upper so far behind the shard upper that the ceiling would not clear it, as before
        // the first remap progress event, commits nothing.
        assert_eq!(
            next_mint(&frontier(5), &frontier(5), &frontier(0), None, Some(4)),
            None
        );
        // A closed remap stream has no upper to commit past.
        assert_eq!(
            next_mint(
                &frontier(5),
                &frontier(5),
                &Antichain::new(),
                Some(ts(14)),
                Some(8)
            ),
            None
        );

        // An outstanding ceiling the frontier has not reached suppresses the description that
        // would otherwise be derived from it, which is what binds the commitment.
        assert_eq!(
            next_mint(&frontier(5), &frontier(9), &frontier(9), Some(ts(20)), None),
            None
        );
        // Once the frontier reaches it, the one description covering the whole ceiling goes out.
        assert_eq!(
            next_mint(
                &frontier(5),
                &frontier(20),
                &frontier(20),
                Some(ts(20)),
                None
            ),
            Some(Mint::Description(frontier(20)))
        );

        // A fresh shard's minimum upper pins like any other time, and before the remap upper is
        // known the ceiling goes out a lookahead past the minimum.
        assert_eq!(
            next_mint(&frontier(0), &frontier(0), &frontier(0), None, Some(8)),
            Some(Mint::Ceiling(ts(8)))
        );
        // A collection that is done has no next description.
        assert_eq!(
            next_mint(
                &Antichain::new(),
                &frontier(7),
                &frontier(100),
                None,
                Some(8)
            ),
            None
        );
    }

    /// A ceiling committed ahead of the frontier gives arriving updates a bound, so a pinned
    /// frontier writes one batch rather than one per timestamp, and the rows sit in a builder that
    /// fills to the blob target instead of many single-timestamp builders that each stay under it
    /// and hold their rows in memory.
    #[mz_ore::test(tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread"))]
    #[cfg_attr(miri, ignore)] // unsupported operation: returning ready events from epoll_wait
    async fn write_batches_routes_updates_below_the_ceiling_into_one_builder() {
        const SNAPSHOT_ROWS: usize = 4;
        const PINNED_TIMES: u64 = 16;
        const DONE: u64 = PINNED_TIMES + 2;

        let persist_clients = test_persist_clients();
        let target = test_target();

        let emitted = run_write_batches(
            target.clone(),
            Arc::clone(&persist_clients),
            committed_ceiling_script(SNAPSHOT_ROWS, PINNED_TIMES, DONE),
        )
        .await;

        assert_eq!(
            emitted.len(),
            1,
            "the whole snapshot should share the one open builder, got {:?}",
            emitted.iter().map(|(b, _)| b).collect::<Vec<_>>()
        );
        assert_eq!(
            emitted[0].0,
            EmittedBatch {
                lower: 0,
                upper: DONE,
                data_max_ts: PINNED_TIMES + 1,
                inserts: u64::cast_from(SNAPSHOT_ROWS) + PINNED_TIMES,
            }
        );

        let total = append_and_read_back(
            &target,
            &persist_clients,
            one_append(emitted, 0, DONE),
            DONE - 1,
        )
        .await;
        assert_eq!(
            total,
            i64::try_from(SNAPSHOT_ROWS).expect("small")
                + i64::try_from(PINNED_TIMES).expect("small"),
            "grouping must not change what the shard ends up holding"
        );
    }

    /// Rows staged before a ceiling covers their timestamp stay in that timestamp's own builder.
    /// Rows arriving at it once a ceiling covers it join the open builder instead, and both are
    /// finished under the description once it is ready.
    #[mz_ore::test(tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread"))]
    #[cfg_attr(miri, ignore)] // unsupported operation: returning ready events from epoll_wait
    async fn write_batches_keeps_an_uncovered_batch_apart_from_the_open_builder() {
        const PINNED: u64 = 2;
        const BEFORE: usize = 4;
        const AFTER: usize = 6;
        const DONE: u64 = 8;

        let persist_clients = test_persist_clients();
        let target = test_target();

        let script = vec![
            Step::Updates(PINNED, BEFORE),
            Step::Commit(0, DONE),
            Step::Description(0, DONE),
            Step::Updates(PINNED, AFTER),
            Step::AdvanceTo(DONE),
        ];

        let emitted = run_write_batches(target.clone(), Arc::clone(&persist_clients), script).await;

        assert_eq!(
            emitted.iter().map(|(b, _)| b.clone()).collect::<Vec<_>>(),
            vec![
                EmittedBatch {
                    lower: 0,
                    upper: DONE,
                    data_max_ts: PINNED,
                    inserts: u64::cast_from(BEFORE),
                },
                EmittedBatch {
                    lower: 0,
                    upper: DONE,
                    data_max_ts: PINNED,
                    inserts: u64::cast_from(AFTER),
                },
            ],
            "rows staged before the ceiling should keep their own batch, and later rows at that \
            timestamp should join the open builder"
        );

        let total = append_and_read_back(
            &target,
            &persist_clients,
            one_append(emitted, 0, DONE),
            DONE - 1,
        )
        .await;
        assert_eq!(
            total,
            i64::try_from(BEFORE + AFTER).expect("small"),
            "splitting a timestamp across two batches must not change what the shard ends up holding"
        );
    }

    /// The ceiling is a bound, not a promise about the data: an update that outruns it has nothing
    /// to be grouped under and writes a batch of its own timestamp, which costs a batch rather
    /// than correctness. The description that arrives later covers both.
    #[mz_ore::test(tokio::test(flavor = "multi_thread"))]
    #[cfg_attr(miri, ignore)] // unsupported operation: returning ready events from epoll_wait
    async fn write_batches_writes_a_trailblazer_past_the_ceiling_its_own_batch() {
        const CEILING: u64 = 9;
        const PINNED_TIMES: u64 = 16;
        const DONE: u64 = PINNED_TIMES + 2;

        let persist_clients = test_persist_clients();
        let target = test_target();

        let mut script = vec![Step::Commit(0, CEILING), Step::AdvanceTo(1)];
        for t in 1..=PINNED_TIMES {
            script.push(Step::Updates(t, 1));
        }
        script.push(Step::Description(0, DONE));
        script.push(Step::AdvanceTo(DONE));

        let emitted = run_write_batches(target.clone(), Arc::clone(&persist_clients), script).await;

        assert_eq!(
            emitted.len(),
            // One for everything below the ceiling, then one per timestamp past it.
            usize::cast_from(DONE - CEILING),
            "got {:?}",
            emitted.iter().map(|(b, _)| b).collect::<Vec<_>>()
        );
        assert!(
            emitted.iter().all(|(b, _)| (b.lower, b.upper) == (0, DONE)),
            "all finished under the one description, got {:?}",
            emitted.iter().map(|(b, _)| b).collect::<Vec<_>>()
        );
        assert_eq!(
            emitted[0].0,
            EmittedBatch {
                lower: 0,
                upper: DONE,
                data_max_ts: CEILING - 1,
                inserts: CEILING - 1,
            },
            "the grouped batch holds every timestamp below the ceiling"
        );

        let total = append_and_read_back(
            &target,
            &persist_clients,
            one_append(emitted, 0, DONE),
            DONE - 1,
        )
        .await;
        assert_eq!(
            total,
            i64::try_from(PINNED_TIMES).expect("small"),
            "outrunning the ceiling must not change what the shard holds"
        );
    }
}